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Item A History of Social Exclusion and Poverty of the Thagichu of Igembe Sub - County, Meru County from 1907 to 1962(INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, 2016-08) Kithinji, Caroline Mucece, Okelo,David O. and Kaburi, Muriungi ColombaThis study is on social exclusion and poverty of the Thagichu of Igembe Sub - County, Meru County in Kenya from 1907 to1962. The study traces the history of social exclusion of the Thagichu from the colonial epoch of the years1907 to 1962. Kenyan Government strategies towards alleviation of social exclusion and poverty between 2013 1nd 2015 are also explored. The study was guided by the theories of Underdevelopment, Materialistic Conception of History and Social Darwinism. The study employed the descriptive research design. Data was collected from oral, archival and secondary sources. A total of 50 people were purposively sampled and interviewed. Data from oral sources was corroborated with data from archival and secondary sources. The major findings of this research are that the Thagichu have been socially excluded by the colonial Government. This exclusion was noted in inadequate infrastructure like roads, schools, hospitals and lack of access to social services like banks compared to other areas of Meru County. The study also established that the government has come up with strategies that could help in tackling social exclusion and poverty of the Thagichu. Such strategies are building more educational facilities, provision of free primary and day secondary education, adult and continuing education, non-formal education and provision of educational funds through the constituency development fund and Affirmative Action Social Development Fund. Other strategies aimed at poverty alleviation are establishment of road networks, land adjudication, presence of NGOs, provision of formal employment, Health facilities, growth of an urban centre and Provision of electricity. This study has contributed to the Thagichu historiographyItem CHANGING TRENDS IN MALE CIRCUMCISION RITE AMONG THE AMERU OF IMENTI SOUTH, KENYA (1939 - 2016)(Chuka University, 2023-10) ISAAC KATHIOMale circumcision rite of initiation has been discussed, but the reality of the Ameru's practice has not been sufficiently presented. Due to the secrecy surrounding the procedure, researchers had frequently stated that it was impossible to understand circumcision among the Ameru. Over the years, the rite has been performed in a customary manner by the Bukusu, Maasai, Pokot, Agikuyu, and the Ameru. In the 1950s, the Ameru community in Imenti South Sub-County embarked on the modernization of their ancient male initiation rite of circumcision. To accurately capture the customary circumcision ritual, the study spanned from 1939 to 2016, and the findings have been classified and presented in two distinct periods: 1939 to 1950 and 1950 to 2016. The primary objective of periodization was to document the traditional rite of passage among Ameru males, observe shifting trends, and explore the implications of transitioning from the traditional to the modern approach in male circumcision. The study specifically focused on Ameru participants residing in Imenti South Sub-County, where the target population consisted of 61,091 men across three divisions. To ensure a representative sample, 50 respondents were selected using random sampling procedure. The research employed various research instruments such as focus groups, observation, and interview schedules. Data collection involved utilizing secondary sources, archival records, and oral accounts. The validity and reliability of the study was maintained by cross-referencing data from oral sources with information obtained from archival and secondary sources. Frequency tables were used to depict quantitative data after it had been analysed using frequencies and percentages. The Modernization Theory (MT) served as the foundation for the investigation. The goal of modernization theory was to explain how societies can evolve and advance by gradually shifting from "traditional" to "modern" social structures. The study finding was that the era of colonization, spread of Christianity, schooling and urbanization was responsible for alterations in male circumcision for example waning of the concept of "one knife, one blood, and one field". In addition, the type of instruction provided, the resources used, seclusion, the method of circumcision, and the commercialization of circumcision have all changed since civilizations are dynamic. The study recommended that the government's cultural ministries regularly educate the general public through advocacy and seminars in order to embrace a change in attitude towards circumcision to easily embrace the choice other community members make. It also recommended the need to build synergy between traditional and modern circumcision through inclusion of culturaly accepted initiation practices into the modern practice. This is crucial for encouraging peaceful cohabitation amongst the followers of the two events. The study suggested further research on impact of changes in circumcision on the future of African cultural values and the need of an indepth look on the feasibility of blending worthwhile aspects of traditional circumcision into modern circumcision.Item PERCIEVED SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING PERFORMANCE OF TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN IGEMBE SOUTH SUB-COUNTY, MERU COUNTY, KENYA(Chuka University, 2022-09) Mururu, JohnSociety looks at the teacher as a principal agent in promoting socially responsible behaviour in young people. Motivated teachers are more likely to motivate students to learn and ensure the implementation of educational reforms and feelings of satisfaction and fulfilment. Teacher performance is a major preoccupation of the Teacher Service Commission. To enhance this Teacher Service Commission introduced Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development system to motivate, promote and establish a collective bargaining agreement for teachers. This was aimed at improving performance of teachers. Despite all these efforts the performance has remained low. This has drawn concern of various stakeholders like the ministry of education, parents, students as well as non-governmental organizations on the effectiveness of the factors put in place to motivate teachers in order to improve their performances. The study therefore, sought to establish the sociological factors that influence performance of teachers in public secondary schools in Igembe South Sub-County. The target population for the study comprised of 200 subjects. A sample size of 141 respondents made up of 1 Sub-County, 10 principals and 130 teachers was selected to participate in the study. Simple random sampling was used to select the 10 schools from the current total of twenty 20 schools and 13 teachers per the selected school. Purposive sampling was employed to select 10 principals and 1 Sub County Director of education. Data collection was done using questionnaires and interviews. A total of 16 respondents made up of 1 Sub-county director of education, 5 principals and 10 teachers participated in the Pilot study in the neighbouring Igembe-Central Sub-County. The validity of the instruments was enhanced through the expert judgment of the researcher’s supervisors and other experts. Reliability of instruments was estimated by use of Cronbach alpha method where a reliability coefficient of 0.845 was obtained. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data with the aid of Scientific Package for Social Sciences version 25.0. Qualitative data from interviews was organized into themes, categories and patterns pertinent to the study.Teacher performance was rated as good though some teacher failed to perform. The study established that work environment was influenced by; health and well-being, personal security, good supervision, praise, cordial relationship, decision making, trust, freedom of expression, guidance, feedback and school housing. The study established that, professional training and development like: in-service training, workshop and seminars, training as Kenya National Examination Council examiners, orientation and benchmarking would improve teacher performance. The study indicated that gender factors did not influence teacher performance much. The study established that economic status was influenced by: salary, incentives, allowances, pension schemes, credit facilities and medical schemes. The study concluded that work environment, professional training, gender factors and economic status had a significant influence on teacher performance. The study recommended that the government should ensure training of managers and principals, encourage in-service training, enhance gender balance on teachers promotion, offering incentives, rewarding and regularly review salaries and allowances. It is also hoped that the findings of study will help the Ministry of Education, TSC, school managers, teachers, parents and other policy makers to improve teacher performance. This study will provide a basis for further research on teacher performance.Item PATIENT INVOLVEMENT IN WOUND CAREAMONG DIABETIC PATIENTS ATTENDING MERU TEACHING AND REFERRAL HOSPITAL, KENYA(Chuka University, 2022-09) M'ruttu, JulianaDiabetes is among the leading non-communicable diseases affecting the society today. Diabetic foot ulcer is among the complications that arise among diabetic patients due to poor management of the condition. Patient involvement is when a patient is actively engaged in the care of their individual health and processes involved in their health care. Patients’ involvement in wound care has been limited despite evidence showing its benefits. This is because the practice has majorly been portrayed as the area of the skilled healthcare provider. There is need to shift the health care responsibilities to the patient. Anecdotal evidence revealed that patients at Meru County Referral Hospital live with diabetic wounds for long durations in hospitals. These wounds keep getting infections and those who are discharged to come for check-up visits often fail to show up. When they do, the wound is majorly infected and may require hospitalization. The purpose of the study was to assess the patients’ contribution to their wound care. The study assessed the patient’s knowledge on their roles in wound care, their level of involvement and patient related contributing factors to their involvement in wound care. The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional survey design. The study population was the patients attending the diabetic outpatient and surgical wards at Meru Teaching and Referral hospital who had a diabetic wound. They were purposively selected, in which 96 patients were sampled. Data was collected using a semi structured questionnaire. To enhance reliability and validity pretest was carried out at Chuka referral hospital. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics whereby means were generated using Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) software version 22. and inferential analysis using Chi square test to determine degree of association of variables. Ethical consideration involved seeking permission from Chuka University, NACOSTI, and Meru Level 5 hospital. Confidentiality anonymity was assured. The data was presented in tables, graphs and narratives. The study showed that all the respondents had knowledge on the type of care they received, cause of the wound majorly being accidents and the cost of treatment being at an average ofKsh 13,875.61 per month. The respondents showed understanding on their role to know when their wounds needed a change of dressing (58.3%) and understood the explanation about the management of their wounds (43.8%). The study however revealed that 62.5% of the respondents did not participate in coming up with the treatment even with having knowledge on their roles. On decision regarding diabetes condition, wound treatment options, scheduling of follow up visits and what to do with wound changes (positive or negative) the respondents choose card C of collaboration with (34.4%),(37.5%),(56.3%) and (61.5%) respectively. On decision regarding cost (68.8%) actively made decisions. Patient related factors affecting the patient involvement included not being involved by nurses in decisions on change of wound care (56.3%). (67.7%) had ever missed appointed.In conclusion the study revealed that patients with diabetic wounds had knowledge on their roles in care of their wound. Their level of involvement was at collaboration implying that they would like to share responsibility with their doctors in coming up with decisions regarding their wounds except on cost decisions. However, the nurses did not involve the patients. Cause of missing appointments included poor communication from nurses, financial challenges and long distance from hospital. The study recommends policies that enable patients to be at the center of making decisions regarding their health to help shift responsibilities from healthcare workers to patients, home-visits to the patients unable to reach the hospital and support groups as diabetes is a life-long disease. vItem POLITICAL - SPIRITUAL DIMENSION OF CONFLICT BETWEEN SAMBURU AND TURKANA: ITS IMPLICATIONS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIVELIHOOD OF SAMBURU COUNTY (1962-2012)(Chuka University, 2022-09) Ikamati, JamesThere exists substantial evidence of constant cattle raids and unrest between Samburu and Turkana in the now Samburu County. This study examined the the nature of conflict and the socio-economic implications of the conflict, the history and evolution of the conflict was examined. Studies have been conducted to evaluate the metamorphosis of the conflict between communities which took center stage slightly before and after Kenya attained independence. This was partially because of the demarcation of borders which separated ethnic groups unlike in the pre-colonial period where people could move freely from one region to another. Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to investigate the political-spiritual dimension of the conflict between Samburu and Turkana and its implications on socio-economic livelihood of Samburu County from 1962 to 2012. The objectives of the study were; to trace the nature of the political & spiritual dimension of the conflict between the Samburu and Turkana from 1962 to 2012, to analyze the socio-economic implications of the conflict between Samburu and Turkana in Samburu County, and to assess the reason for the persistence of conflict between Samburu and Turkana despite government intervention. The study used the Hobbesian theory of human nature and the conflict functionalist perspective by Lewis Coser to evaluate the nature of the political-spiritual dimension of conflict between the Samburu and Turkana, socio economic challenges, and proposed effective solutions to the conflict. The study was conducted in Samburu County, the study used non-probability purposive sampling procedure and snow-balling technique in choosing the respondents. The sample size was guided by the concept of data saturation where 38 respondents were interviewed. The study employed a descriptive research design. The use of interview guide helped collect data, after which it was subjected to qualitative data analysis. Data was also collected from existing primary and secondary sources which entailed analysis of political records, economic survey records and provincial administration records to supplement the ones obtained from interview guide. The study established the existence of the political-spiritual dimension of conflict between Samburu and Turkana communities. It also found out that there was enormous socio-economic effect on their livelihoods. The study showed that most of the community members in Samburu County were pastoralist with O level education since insecurity had affected school going children. It was found that Baragoi was the leading village in Samburu County where conflict took place for a long time, it had been known as the battle ground for the two communities. It was found that the Turkana had trespassed as far as south as the Seya River and the Kenya Land Commission recommended that they should be returned to Elbarta at a baraza that was carried out in Maralal. The study also found that, effective solution to the conflict between Turkana and Samburu had been implemented both by the local and the government. It was found discouraging of customary practices of collective communal initiation was to solve the conflict between the communities. Therefore, the study will be instrumental to the Government and policy-makers since it hinted how conflicts can be thwarted so that people can live harmoniously and social-economic developments and also proposed various effective solutions which if adopted peace can prevail among the Samburu and Turkana communities.Item STRUCTURAL, OPTICAL AND ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISATION OF SOL-GEL SYNTHESIZED COPPER DOPED NICKEL TITANATE (CuXNi1-XTiO3) NANOPARTICLES(Chuka University, 2022-09) Kirimi, NixonNanoparticles of less than 100 nm have improved properties in comparison to the bulk properties of the same material. This makes them more appealing and recently, they have attracted a lot of research attention. Titanate are materials based on ilmenite structure with formula MTiO3. Titanates are applicable in areas like photocatalysis, environmental purification and gas sensors, in optical and storage devices and high effect solar cells among others. This is due to their promising electrical, optical and magnetic properties that are tunable through doping amongst other methods. The fabrication of any electronic device depends on electrical and optical properties of a material. Doping can improve such properties. NiTiO3 possesses low quantum efficiency and high electron-hole recombination. To overcome these two, Cu0Ni1TiO3, for 𝑥 = 0 and copper-doped nickel titanates nanoparticles (CuxNi1-xTiO3 (x = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7) were successfully synthesized via sol-gel method and calcined at 600 °C for 3 hours to obtain the final product. The studies of various properties of the synthesized samples were through XRF, XRD, FTIR, Kelvin probe and UV-Vis analysis. The XRD spectra analysis for the CuxNi1-xTiO3 revealed the micro strain to be 0.0019, 0.001, -0.0028, -0.0017, the dislocation density as 80.160𝑥10−3Å −2 ,165.919𝑥10−3Å −2 , 305.241 𝑥 10−3Å −2 , 144.2442𝑥10−3 Å −2 and the packing factor of synthesized samples as 84.88, 101.96, 91.79 and 82.26 for 𝑥 = 0, 0.3, 0.5 ,0.7 respectively. FTIR analysis indicated frequencies 501-504 cm-1 , 401-492 cm-1and 703 -704 cm-1 attributed to O-Ti-O and Ti-O stretching vibrations, octahedral metal-oxygen bond and tetrahedral vibration bonds for CuxNi1-xTiO3 (𝑥 = 0, 0.3, 0.5 ,0.7) respectively. The band gap energy of the synthesized 𝑥 = 0 sample as studied via UV-Vis was 4.2024 eV. The energy band gaps for the copper-doped nickel titanate were 4.1953 eV, 4.2024 eV and 4.2969 eV for 𝑥 = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 respectively. The Kelvin’s probe analysis for the doped samples, revealed line scan work function in the range of 5.0321 eV- 5.3855 eV for 𝑥 = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 4.9707 eV for 𝑥 = 0. The point scan analysis showed work function of 5.098 eV for 𝑥 = 0 and a range of 4.908 eV - 5.366 eV for 𝑥 = 0.3,0.5,0.7 samples. The samples for 𝑥 = 0, 0.3, 0.5 showed a negative contact potential difference while sample for 𝑥 = 0.7 showed positive contact potential difference. Copper dopant had an effect on the structural, optical and electronic properties of nickel titanate.Item EFFECT OF WORK CHARACTERISTICS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS ON ADOPTION OF SAFETY MEASURES AND LABOUR PRODUCTIVITY AMONG AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN TRANS NZOIA COUNTY, KENYA(Chuka University, 2022-09) Cheruiyot, GodfreyDue to the physical demands and chemical use involved in agricultural work, it is one of the most dangerous professions in terms of safety. Roughly 70% of Kenya's rural population is employed directly or indirectly in the agricultural industry, which produces about 26% of the country's gross domestic product. Despite its significant contribution through both formal and informal employment, casual workers in this sector are not always assured of their safety. Most agricultural workers are always at risk of physical injuries, accidents, acquaintance to hazardous chemicals and infections, which negatively affect their productivity. In order to increase productivity, this study sought to identify the work characteristics, socio-economic factors and labour productivity among agricultural workers in Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. The research employed a descriptive survey methodology. A sample of 188 small scale horticultural crops agricultural workers was used in this study. The respondents were selected using a cluster random sampling technique. Data on work characteristics, such as workload, access to training, use of personal protection equipment and access to information, were gathered using a semi-structured questionnaire. Data were collected on socio economics factors affecting adoption of safety measures such age, education, access to phone and electricity, internet, household size, total land size and gender labour performance among agricultural workers to enhance improved productivity. Adoption of safety measures was measured by level of accidents and significant effect of socio-economics factors. The data collected was analysed using STATA version 17. To assess how socio-economic factors, affect the adoption of safety measures, a multinomial logit regression model was employed and a multiple regression model was used to determine how the adoption of safety measures affects labour productivity in order to increase economic productivity. The average labour productivity was 3.626 units. The result of this study showed that access to internet, gender, education, group membership and farming occupation significantly contributed (p < 0.05) to the adoption of safety measures which further contribute to the economic productivity growth. However, access to electricity, phone, age, household size and total land size did not significantly contribute (p > 0.05) to the adoption of safety measures therefore no effect on production. Access to electricity, phone, age and education had statistically significant (p < 0.05) effect on labour productivity. Results on work characteristics revealed that 10.16% of the agricultural workers had taken through written risk assessment analysis guideline from extension officers, 18.72% received safety training, 28.88% cleaned personal clothing after use and most seek advice pertaining to safety measures from local agro vets. This study concluded that agricultural workers with high level of education, membership to agricultural worker’s groups and access to internet leads to increased adoption of safety measures due to technological advancement in accessing new information leading to an increase in agricultural productivity. Access to training, use of personal clothing, use of casual labourers, access to information on safety measures, availability of first aid kits in case of an accident leads to reduced injuries. Access to electricity increases labour productivity as there is enhanced use of machines. Moreover, agricultural workers with high level of education showed increased labour productivity. The study recommends training agricultural workers on the importance of work safety practices. For improved labour productivity, there is need to enhance farmers access to electricity for increased mechanization.Item INFLUENCE OF KIPSIGIS CULTURAL PRACTICES ON PARTICIPATION RATES AMONG BOYS IN SELECTED PUBLIC DAY PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN TRANS-MARA EAST SUB-COUNTY, NAROK COUNTY, KENYA(Chuka University, 2022-09) Kipkoech, KiruiEducation is the foundation of economic development of human resources. A country that provides free access to quality education for all its citizens is far more likely to reduce poverty, promote economic growth, lower child and maternal mortality and achieve social inclusion. Despite efforts by the Kenyan government to attain gender parity in access and participation of school by both boys and girls, there are still gaps in Trans Mara East Sub-County, Narok County with boys’ participation being low. This study aimed at establishing the influence of the Kipsigis cultural practices on participation rates among boys in selected public day primary schools in Trans Mara East Sub-County, Narok County. The study used descriptive survey research design. Study was conducted in twelve public day primary schools selected randomly from sixty primary schools in Trans Mara East Sub-County. The target population for this study was 10,080 comprising of 180 parent representatives, 60 Head teachers, 9600 pupils in class six,seven and eight and 240 class teachers. Simple random sampling was used to select 144 pupils while purposive sampling was used to select 12 head teachers, 31 class teachers and 12 parent representatives from which a sample of 199 participants was achieved. Questionnaires were used to collect data from class six, seven and eight boys and class teachers in the sampled schools while interview schedule was used to collect data from parent representatives and head teachers. Validity of the research was ascertained by expert judgement from the faculty of education and resources development, use of triangulation method in data collection and using simple random sampling technique.A pilot study was carried out in one of the zones that was not part of the actual study involving 34 respondents. Reliability of the instruments was tested using Cronbach’s Alpha and a reliability coefficient of 0.758 was obtained. The quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 25.0. The descriptive data was presented using tables of frequencies and percentages, while the Spearman Rho’ Correlation Coefficient was used to infer on the relationship between Kipsigis cultural practices and the primary school participation among boys. The findings of the study showed that there is a moderate positive correlation between Kipsigis cultural values and participation rates (r =0.587) and Kipsigis circumcision rites and participation rates (r =0.454). Further,there was a positive insignificant correlation between Kipsigis cultural festivities and participation rates (r =0.099). The study concluded that Kipsigis cultural values, festivities and circumcision rites influenced primary school participation among boys in public day primary schools. Based on the study, the researcher recommends the Kipsigis cultural values, festivities and circumcision rites to be used as instrumental tools to instil positive values in enhancing participation of boys in primary schooling. It is hoped that the findings of this study may be useful in helping primary school administrators and managers, the ministry of education, and other key educational stakeholders in coming up with ways of strengthening primary school participation among boys.Item SOCIO-ECONOMIC, GROSS MARGINS AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF FOOD CROP PRODUCTION BY SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN MAKUENI SUB-COUNTY, KENYA.(Chuka University, 2022-09) Kieti, JacksonFarming of food crops is a major source of livelihood for human existence. In Kenya, agriculture contribute about 33% to the GDP, with both food crops and commercial crops contributing at least 80% which translates to approximately 26.4 percent. In Makueni County, crop farming cover 72% of the land and accounts for about 42% of employment in the county. However, most farmers are resource poor despite their investment in farming enterprises. Makueni Sub County is semi-arid and farmers, who are majorly smallholders, grow drought tolerant varieties of food crops. Moreover, despite the perceived viability of these crops, low production and income are key challenges facing farmers and could be attributed to the wrong choice of enterprise. Current study thus sought to evaluate the factors affecting the choice of food crop enterprises among Makueni sub-county farmers to help them make the right agri-enterprise decisions thus improving their production and incomes. A descriptive survey design was used where the target population for the study was the 34,479 households in Kee, Kaiti and Wote locations in Makueni Sub County. An estimated sample size of 395 respondents was obtained using Taro Yamene’s, 1973 formula at a 5% significance level. A semi structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data. The major focus was a combination of at least three crops farmers were producing as per crop selection priority during March to June 2021 cropping season. A stratified random sampling procedure was used to ensure inclusivity in all three locations by ensuring a proportionate sample per location. The sample population was purposively determined by narrowing specifically to farmers who produce maize, pigeon peas, beans and green grams in Makueni Sub County. Data analysis was done using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize farmer households. Multinomial logistic regression was used to estimate the probability of a household adopting a production choice of three crop combinations for the socioeconomic and institutional variables for the study. Gross margin analysis was used to calculate the return from the choice of crop production enterprises a household was producing. Analyzed data showed that age (0.044), gender (0.001), access to extension services (0.043), farmer group membership (0.029) and farm size (0.030) significantly influence farmers’ choice of crop production enterprises. Category one was used as the base category for the analysis of socioeconomic and institutional factors. Age had positive on the choice of category four relative to the base category while gender negatively influenced the choice relative to the reference category. Farm size had both positive and negative influence relative to base category for categories three and four. On the other hand, extension access influenced enterprise choices negatively relative to the base category. Group membership posed positive influence for categories three and four relative to the base category. 71% of the respondents produced maize, beans and pigeon peas under category one. Over 62% depended on both on-farm and off-farm income sources. Over 71% of the respondents had the perception that their income was inadequate to carry out farming activities. 73% of the respondents had the perception that membership to groups did not influence their choice of crop enterprises. Above 67% of the respondents felt that farm size influenced their choice of crop enterprises. Therefore, this study recommends that programs relating to access to information, extension services, credit facilities and group membership be made accessible to farmers. Policy makers on the other hand should come up with strategies that would help in bridging the gap in gender and land issues such as access and its continued decline in size among households.Item PREVALENCE AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BACTERIAL WILT DISEASE caused by Ralstonia solanacearum on TOMATOES in MERU SOUTH SUB-COUNTY and BIOCONTROL using Trichoderma harzianum(Chuka University, 2022-09) Maginyo, PurityIn most parts of Kenya, tomato production is characterized by low quality and huge losses due to pest and diseases. Most common tomato diseases are caused by bacteria, bacterial wilt being the most prevalent. Bacterial wilt of tomato is caused by Ralstonia solanacearum and it accounts for up to 70 - 80% losses in tomatoes. Despite its importance, information on prevalence of bacterial wilt in different agro ecological zones in Meru south sub county is limited while the awareness of the disease existence is prerequisite to effective management. Chemicals are used to control the disease but their repeated use cause harmful effects on environment and pose health risks to the users. Therefore, there is a need for an alternative non-chemical methods of bacterial disease control. Studies have shown that Trichoderma harzianum can significantlyreduce R. solanacearum. However, information on its inhibitory effects on R. solanacearum in under different ecological conditions is scanty. The aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of R. solanacearum in tomato farms in Meru South sub vi county, carry out morphological characterization of the pathogen and evaluate the efficacy of T. harzianum as biocontrol under in vitro conditions. Studies on prevalence of the bacterial wilt were carried out by conducting a survey across agro ecological zones (LM1, UM1, UM2, UM3 and LM1) in Meru south. Study farms were randomly selected. Data on the frequency of occurrence, severity and impacts of the disease were collected by observation and administration of questionnaires to the farmers. Severity of the disease was scored using a scale of 0 – 5. Tomato plants showing symptoms of bacterial wilt were sampled. Laboratory isolation and characterization of R. solanacearum of pathogen at Chuka University was arranged in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) based on site of sample origin, with five replicates. Selected biochemical tests were used for characterization of isolates of R. solanacearum pathogen. Analysis of variance was used to test whether there is variation in prevalence of bacteria wilt isolates obtained from different agro ecological zones. T. harziunum inhibitory effects against R. solanacearum was investigated using double culture on potato dextrose agar set in five replicates. Data obtained from efficacy of T. harzianum against R. solanacearum was subjected to analysis of variance using SAS version 9.4 software. Significant means were separated using Least Significance Difference at α = 0.05. The prevalence of bacterial wilt by the tested pathogen was found to be higher in the farms where tomatoes were grown in the study area. However, there was notable variation of the level of infection of the pathogen within the surveyed farms in the agro-ecological zones. The disease prevalence ranged from a mean of 15.53% to 62.66%. All group of isolates of R. solanacearum were gram negative. Trichoderma had significant (p ˂ 0.05) effect on the growth of pathogenic bacteria causing wilting in tomatoes. The Results showed that there was a strong activity of control fungal depending on the concentration. This study broadens the understanding of R. solancaerum prevalence in Meru South sub-county. Finally, there is need to perform the ex vitro experiment on the field to test the efficacy Trichoderma harzianum for better yields and improved food security in the region.Item A HISTORICAL STUDY ON THE TRANSITION FROM SUBSISTENCE TO CASH CROP FARMING IN ABOGETA SUB-COUNTY, MERU COUNTY, KENYA, FROM 1937-1980(Chuka University, 2022-09) Kaburu, LydiaThis study is about the history of the transition from subsistence to cash crop farming in Abogeta Sub-County in Meru County, Kenya, from 1937-1980. The main economic activity of the people in Abogeta Sub-County is farming and keeping livestock. Before 1937 farming practices were mainly for subsistence. Crops grown included millet, sorghum, peas, arrowroots, yams, beans and cowpeas. However, many changes occurred in the agricultural sector by 1937. This study aimed to examine the transition from subsistence to cash crop farming and its effects on food production in Abogeta Sub County of Meru from 1937 to 1980. The following objectives guided the study: to investigate the modes of agricultural practices embraced by the people of the Abogeta sub-county from 1937-1980, to account for the transition from subsistence to cash crop farming and to establish the implications of the transition from subsistence to cash crop farming on food production. It was guided by the Articulation of Modes of Production theory, whose main precept is that penetration of capitalism in Africa affected modes of production. The theory was used to explain how capitalist theory spread in Abogeta Sub County and its effects on food production. The study employed a descriptive research design to describe the events as they occurred systematically. The target population was 179608 as per the 2019 census. A total of 30 respondents were randomly sampled and interviewed from Abogeta Sub County. The data collection instruments were interview schedules, focused group discussions and observation schedules. The data sources included oral, archival, and secondary sources, which were corroborated to meet the reliability and objectivity of the research. The study was analyzed and presented through Qualitative Data Analysis. The study revealed that people from Abogeta Sub County traditionally engaged in subsistence farming. Farming shifted to cash crop farming in 1937 with the introduction of cash crops like coffee and tea. The study also noted that the transition had both positive and negative impacts on the people of Abogeta. Food insecurity and migration were noted during the study. Agricultural activities were mainly for subsistence and not for sale. Chapter four has evidence of the transition from subsistence to cash crop farming, where farmers shifted from food crops to planting cash crops of tea, coffee, French beans, bananas and cabbages for sale. The study revealed that money from the sale of cash crops had been diverted to paying school fees, loan payments, and buying clothes leaving little or no money to purchase enough food for household consumption. The study affected the social organization of the people of abogeta. The study may be useful to future researchers in a related area. Policymakers in the government may use the study to find solutions to food insecurity in Abogeta Sub County of Meru County.Item COLONIALISM AND ITS IMPLICATION ON FAMILY STABILITY AMONG THE AEMBU, KENYA, 1895-1965(Chuka University, 2022-09) KAARIA, LIZZAThis study explored the topic of colonialism and its implication on family stability among the Aembu, Kenya between 1895 and 1965. The Aembu family value system by 1895 was authentic, clear and secured, but with the coming of colonialism it encountered many challenges that the post-independence government wished to address in the 1965 Sessional Paper number 10 on African Socialism. Colonialism therefore had longstanding implications on the Aembu family value system. This study was guided by three objectives: to examine the African family value system in Embu North Sub-County, Kenya from 1895 to 1920, to establish the cultural evolutions brought about by colonialism on the African family value system in Embu North Sub-County, Kenya, 1895-1965 and to assess the aspects of Aembu family value system that have been preserved from 1920 to 1965. The study was informed by the Cultural Evolution Theory which is based on the premise that the culture of human beings’ changes gradually over a period of time due to competition among cultural traits as people interact. Those customs, beliefs and traditions that are fit and suited for survival and can compete favorably are the ones that survive and get transitted over the weaker ones. It is the nature of cultural competition that has led to extinction of some cultural aspects such as languages and the gradual decline of the African family value of polygamy in African communities. Descriptive research design was used for it enabled the decription of state of affairs as they were. The study was conducted in Nginda, Ruguru-Ngandori and Kirimari wards in Embu County. The respondents were sampled using purposive sampling and snowballing sampling technique. The study targeted 79,556 Aembu people in Embu North as per the 2019 census from which a sample size of 50 respondents was drawn from the three wards for interviews. The sources of data included: oral sources, archival sources and secondary sources which were corroborated to meet the reliability and objectivity of the research. Data was collected through oral interviews and focus group discussions. The study analyzed and presented data through Qualitative Data Analysis. The study established that; the Aembu were polygamists whose homesteads comprised several huts for different members; they had a supreme council Kiama kia Ngome and were mixed farmers; they had an elaborate family value system with strict safeguards on social, political and economic aspects that ensured a very stable family unit. Missionaries built the first station in Embu North Sub-County at Kigari in 1910 after arriving in 1906; there was concerted effort to end female circumcision and ensure monogamy was exercised in place of polygamy; there was positive and negative implication on family values after imposition of colonialism; people abandoned some cultural practices, embraced others and merged the good from both cultures. The study concluded that the coming of the British missionaries to Embu North Sub-County impacted on European imperialism and led to cultural subjugation. The study has contributed to the historiography of the Aembu.Item A HISTORY OF REPRESENTATIVE POLITICS AND THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE KADIMO CLAN OF YIMBO IN SIAYA COUNTY, KENYA, FROM 1896 -1963.(Chuka University, 2020-11) RICHARD, OLWANDE ODO. AThis study is about a history of representative politics and the socio-economic development of the Kadimo clan of Yimbo in Siaya county, Kenya, from 1896 to 1963. The study is guided by three objectives; to examine the evolution of representative politics of the Kadimo clan of Yimbo between 1896 and 1963, to determine the new forms of representative politics of the Kadimo clan of Yimbo from the onset of colonialism and to establish the influence of representative politics on socio-economic development of the Kadimo people during the colonial period. The assumptions of the study were that the history of representative politics of the Kadimo clan could be traced from the period 1896 when the British sent a messenger to Oloo of the Kadimo clan of Yimbo that they wished to make him the first colonial chief of the Yimbo people, that new forms of representative politics emerged among the Kadimo clan of Yimbo after 1896 and that lack of political representation affected socio-economic development of the Kadimo people during the colonial period. The study used Postcolonial and Underdevelopment theories to examine the history of representative politics and its socio-economic development of the Kadimo clan. Methodologically, the study used descriptive research design. The study was conducted in Yimbo, Siaya county. The respondents were purposively sampled using a snowballing technique. The study targeted 6, 210 Kadimo people in Usigu as per the 2019 census. The sample size was 30 respondents drawn from Usigu for interviews. The sources of data included: oral sources, archival sources and secondary sources, and were corroborated to meet the reliability and objectivity of the research. Data was collected through oral interviews and focus group discussions. The study analysed and presented data through Qualitative Data Analysis. The findings of the study discussed in chapters four, five and six were as follows; Jo-Kadimo found people of Bantu origin in Yimbo on their arrival and lived among them; Dholuo became the lingua franca in Yimbo; Kadimo homestead had many huts and they were polygamist; they practised mixed farming and there was a chief council called Buch Piny; Dimo was the first ruoth; the first colonial chief was appointed in 1902; there were conspiracies to remove incumbent representatives from office; there were no schools in the location until 1928 when Usenge School was built; there no health centres in the location and the Yimbo people hated to pay taxes to the colonial government. Chapter seven provides discussion on the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the research. The study has contributed to the historiography of the Kadimo clan.Item A History of Khat Production and Its Socio-Economic Impact in Siakago Sub County, Embu County-Kenya From 1980 To 2018(Chuka University, 2019-09) Kithinji, Mary Anne WanjaBefore diversification into Khat production in Siakago, most of the households were engaged in subsistence farming activities. The agricultural sector was performing poorly being a semi-arid area raising a serious concern. The area was characterized by poor households and was unable to meet their most basic needs, low productivity, subsistence farming as well as deprivation of social infrastructure. Diversification into Khat production in Siakago Division was aimed at improving the socio economic lives of the households which it seemed not to have achieved, since the area is still charactelized as a food insecure zone, poor households and deprivation of social infrastructure.This study sought to explore the Socio -economic impacts Khat production on rural households of Siakago division from 1980 to 2018. The study traced the history of Khat production in Siakago division between 1980 and 2018, examined the social and economic activities of the people of Siakago division before introduction of Khat and examined the social and economic impacts of Khat production on rural households of Siakago Division from 1980 to 2018. The study was guided by the theory of articulation mode of production. The study employed descriptive research design. The target population was 380 people who were Khat producers in Siakago division. A total of 196 people were randomly sampled and interviewed from 6 sub location. The instruments to collect data were interview schedule, focus group discussion and observation schedule. Secondary data was collected from archival, oral sources and secondary sources. Khat existed in Siakago long enough before it was discovered, used and cultivated for economic purposes. Khat adoption and commercialization in Siakago occurred within a decade and by 1980, the crop had spread in many areas altering the previous form of production. The adoption of khat production was as a result of its economic benefits attached to its sale. The support by the government on khat production by 1980 was a means of agricultural diversification in the area. This was aimed at making the area self-sufficient in terms of agricultural production. The people of Siakago grew food crops for subsistence use while Khat is the main cash crops grown. Labour was provided collectively and shared among men and women in the family. Production was mainly aimed at curbing food insecurity. The Siakago people engaged in trading activities to exchange for what they did not produce. The study finally concludes that khat production had both social and economic impacts among producing households. The previous communal land ownership was replaced with a more centralized and formal one for people to own their specific khat farms. Khat production and use resulted in extinction of social relations and gender roles as men spent much time in khat chewing joints. School-going pupils were absorbed by khat farms to provide cheap labour for cheap money thus dropping out of school. The previous decentralized trading methods were replaced with a more centralized one characterized by central trading centres. It is hoped that the study may help the government devise better policies that can promote the living standards of the people in the area.. The results of the study may also provide empirical data that can be utilized by other scholars in carrying out related studies.