Department of Environmental Studies
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Item PERCEPTION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DETERMINANTS FOR ADOPTION OF ADAPTATION STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN IGAMBANG’OMBE, SUB- COUNTY, KENYA(Chuka University, 2020-12) Mwendandu, Irene WanguiClimate change and variability have been identified globally as a major challenge to food security especially in Arid and Semi-Arid lands (ASALs). Agriculture and smallholder farmers have also been identified as the most vulnerable, mainly due to the former being rain-fed and the latter having inadequate adaptive capacity to the dynamics of climate change and variability. This study, therefore, sought to assess the perception towards adaptation strategies to climate change and variability, determine the social-economic factors that influences their adoption, as well as assess those adaptations strategies practiced, among smallholder farmers in Igambang’ombe Sub- County, Tharaka Nithi County. Descriptive research design was applied. Systematic random sampling was used to select the respondents and a semi-structured questionnaire with open and closed-ended questions was used for data collection. Observations and interviews were carried out, while systematic random sampling was used to select the respondents. Likert scale was used for analysis, frequencies and percentages were done, while correlation analysis was used to assess which socio- economic factors influenced the adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability. The results showed that majority (81%) of the respondents perceived that climate change and variability was taking place, Weather information from forecasting as an adaptation strategy to climate change and variability was accessed by 81% of farmers, with 67% getting it from the Kenya Meteorological Department, mainly through radio at 74%. Furthermore, in land preparation and use, ox-ploughing was adopted by 71% of the farmers and 100% of the smallholder farmers allocating land to crop farming. Terracing and intercropping were adopted by 88% and 84%, with terracing being perceived as the most effective by 73% of the smallholder farmers. The study further showed that 62% of the farmers diversified crop production by introducing new crop varieties, mainly green grams and maize. The study showed that age (42%), farmer’s farming experience (40%), and level of education of the household head (24%), were the key socio-economic factors in influencing the adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change and variability. Importantly adaptation of climate change and variability adaptation strategies was also associated to access and frequency of extension services. Access to farm subsidy, and credit was also important. Farmers and agriculture stakeholders needed to upscale the adoption of strategies as minimum tillage, mulching, contour ploughing, and use of weather and climate forecasting in the selection of crop varieties and production planning. However, the training should be guided by specific socio-economic farmer characteristics.Item EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND SOIL FERTILITY ENHANCEMENT MEASURES ON CROP PRODUCTION IN MAVURIA WARD, EMBU COUNTY IN KENYA(Chuka University, 2020-12) Nyaga, Samuel KivutiAfrica continent is under pressure from climate stresses and is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In Kenya, agriculture is the backbone of the economy making it an important contributor to food security of rural households. Currently crop productivity is being affected by continued climate variations and decline in soil fertility. Adaptation to climate change and soil fertility management requires to be given high and urgent priority for sustainable crop production. A study was conducted in Mavuria ward, Mbeere South Sub-County, Embu County to evaluate the effects of climate change adaptation and soil fertility enhancement measures on crop production. The study used both descriptive and experimental research designs. The primary data on adaptation measures was collected from farmers, institutions using questionnaires and soil samples collected and analysis done in Soil Cares laboratories to determine the nutrient levels. In the data analysis, descriptive statistics was used to organize the climate data and that of the respondents into frequencies. Further, the Person’s correlation test was done to determine the relationship between climate parameters and the yield of the four major crops at α=0.05. From the study findings, the relationships between rainfall and the crops were all positive with strong correlation coefficient for beans (r=0.719) and cowpeas (r=0.556) and weak coefficients for maize (r=0.443) and green grams (r=0.394). However, all the correlation coefficients with rainfall were not significant (p>0.05). The relationship of the crop yields with temperature could not be determined since the mean annual temperature did not vary across the years. Most of the soils were deficient in nitrogen (66.7%), and phosphorus was within recommended range (66.7%) and 32.3% were above the recommended level. Regarding potassium levels, all the soils had levels above the maximum recommended. The main adaptation mechanisms identified were soil fertility improvement, soil and water conservation, early planting, pest and disease control, provision of certified seeds, and awareness creation. In view of these findings, the study recommends the continuous implementation of the measures that can help strengthen farmers and institutional adaptation mechanisms towards climate change for improved crop production.Item EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY AND PURIFICATION POTENTIAL OF COMMELINA BANGHALENSIS, MACROPHYTES IN NKENYE STREAM IN MERU SOUTH, THARAKA NITHI COUNTY, KENYA(Chuka University, 2020-12) Chabari, Samson KithakaAccess to portable water remains a major global concern due to increased rate of water pollution, accelerated urbanization, high population, industrialization and intense agricultural activities that destroy riparian zones thus exposing rivers and streams to toxic and pathogenic pollutants from untreated organic and inorganic waste. Exposure of streams used for drinking water to pollution is detrimental to consumers. Nkenye stream in Meru South is depended upon for the use in fish ponds, irrigation and provision of water for domestic use. Nonetheless, little attention has been accorded to acertain the chemical and biological quality of the flowing water and that of the water bed despite of the stream being located in an urban area with high exposure to pollutants. Pressure on Nkenye wetlands ecosystem that habours Nkenye stream has seen major destruction of vegetation leaving just few plant communities such as Commelina banghalensis whose water purification potential is not well known. This study was conducted to determine water quality of Nkenye stream and water purification capacity of Commelina banghalensis along this stream. Samples were collected at designated locations using ecological survey method and taken to Chuka University for analysis. However, water temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen were determined in situ using Hanna conductivity meter. In the laboratory. Macrophyte roots were cleaned and dried then powdered and digested using nitric acid. The sediment samples were dried, ground to pas a 2 mm non-metal sieve, digested samples were diluted and analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry model PG990 at Chuka University. The concentration of anions was determined by ion chromatography at Chuka University Chemistry laboratory. Coliform analysis of water samples was done by most probable number method using Macconkey purple broth at botany laboratory, Chuka University. The results obtained from the field and laboratory were analyzed by General linear model (GLM) on Statistical analysis system (SAS) version 9.4 and significance means separated by Least significance difference (LSD) [alpha = 0.05]. The results showed that Nkenye stream is polluted with iron, copper and lead. However, the concentration of iron and copper were within the set standards by the World Health Organization while lead was slightly higher by 0.02 ppm. Feacal coliform were found not to conform to WHO standards of o cfu/100 ml as the mean of 10 cfu/100 ml was observed for the entire stream. In conclusion, metal pollutants were significantly different from location to location of sampling. However, the concentrations were within the WHO standards for drinking water. The metals contaminants observed in the Nkenye stream water, sediments and root samples may be associated with discharge of wastes from Chuka town particularly wastes from car wash, garages and from farms that surround the stream and the wetland. Considerable amount of lead, copper and iron was observed in the root samples of Commelina banghalensis. This shows that the plant can be utilized in the removal of the above cations in the Nkenye stream. The study recommends that local authorities particularly Tharaka Nithi County government should provide waste management disposal systems and policies that prohibit direct discharge of effluents or any other industrial based wastes into the stream. The County government should enact policies that prohibit cultivation along the stream or any activity that endanger the riparian zones of Nkenye stream. Lastly, first growing macrophyte plants such as Commelina banghalensis should be adopted and planted as a buffer zone between the stream and the land bordering upstream of the stream to trap and retain harmful wastes that otherwise would find their way into the water body.Item DIVERSITY, HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION AND PHYTOREMEDIATION POTENTIAL OF WILD PLANTS SPECIES NATURALLY GROWING ON KANG’OKI DUMPSITE, THIKA, KENYA(Chuka University, 2020-12) Orao, Lynet AkothIncreased industrialisation, urbanization, human population, and unregulated anthropogenic activities have led to an increased waste generation which in turn pollutes soil, water and air. Increased pollution is harmful to both plants and animals, which consequently affect humans. Most methods which have been applied by farmers in removal of pollutants from the soils are very expensive and unreliable. They include soil washing, use of mechanical and chemical methods. Therefore, a greener technology such as phytoremediation, which decontaminates polluted environment without interfering with soil structure or soil micro-organism is necessary. The objectives of this study was to determine the diversity of the plants growing naturally in Kang’oki dumpsite and concentration of selected heavy metals in soil, water and plant tissues to assess the potential of the plants for their phytoremediation potential. The dumpsite is situated within Thika municipality in Kiambu County, Kenya. An inventory of all plants growing on the dumpsite was carried out employing a quadrat sampling technique. A quasi Randomized Complete Block Design was used in this study, with dumpsite subdivided into 14 sites, forming the sampling sites. Soil, water and plant tissues samples were collected from all sampling sites. Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H’) was used to compute species diversity. The samples collected were acid digested and Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cu concentrations in samples determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry analytical method at Chuka University Chemistry laboratory. The data obtained from water, soil and plants samples were further analysed using Statistical Analysis System version 9.4. The significant means were separated using Least Significance Difference at α = 0.05. The bioaccumulation and translocation factors of the investigated plants were done to determine the phytoremediation potential of the plants. The dumpsite had high species diversity (H` = 0.94), with species evenness of 0.45, indicating that different levels of environmental disturbance have different effects on species diversity. Seventy one plant species belonging to 28 families were identified. Asteraceae was most dominant family. Parthenium hysterophorus belonging to the family asteraceae is the most widely occurring species while Carica papaya, Opuntia violacea, and Pisum sativum were rare species. Concentration of the metals in soil samples at different sites were significant (p <0.0001). Concentration of Cd, Ni, Cu and Pb in water samples were significant (p <0.0001) except for cadmium (p> 0.053). Water samples had low levels of Cu, Pb, Ni, and Pb in all the sites compared to plants and soil samples. In plant tissues, Cu had the highest in plants while cadmium was the lowest. All investigated plants showed translocation factor >1 while bioaccumulation factor for most plants were <1, indicating that the plants are hyperaccumulators. Datura stramonium showed BCF and TF for Cd and Cu >1, hence, it can be used for phytoextraction of Cd and Cu in a polluted environment. Ricinus communis showed bioconcentration factor and translocation factor for Ni >1, hence can be used for phytoextraction of Ni. Conclusively, the dumpsite has high levels of the studied heavy metals, therefore, the investigated plants can be utilized for eco-restoration of the dumpsite.Item Assessment of The Distribution, Abundance and Carbon Stocks in Seagrass Meadows Within Eastern and Western Creeks of Gazi Bay, Kenya(Chuka University, 2019-09) Juma, Gabriel AkokoSeagrass meadows are one of the most important blue carbon ecosystems within the seascape environment providing both ecological and economic benefits. They act as breeding and feeding grounds for fish and other organisms; perform carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and other ecosystem services. Through their carbon capture and storage ability, seagrass can be incorporated in carbon offset schemes. However, they are highly degraded from both anthropogenic and natural factors. Carbon stocks assessment is required in understanding dynamics of seagrass meadows. In Gazi Bay, Kenya, carbon storage in the seagrass meadows has been determined in the open waters of the Bay. The present study aimed at contributing to carbon dynamics of Gazi bay by assessing the distribution, abundance and carbon storage in seagrass within the mangrove fringed creeks. The objectives included assessing distribution and abundance of seagrass in the creeks, determining above and below ground seagrass biomass and comparing sediment carbon stocks between vegetated and un-vegetated sites. Stratified random sampling strategy was used in collecting data within 80 square plots of 0.25m by 0.25m. Five species formation viz; Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Enhalus acoroides, and Thalassidendron ciliatum were encountered as either single or mixed stand. A total of 480 samples were collected for sediment and biomass determination in the laboratory. The results showed a higher seagrass diversity in the Eastern creek, (H = 1.71), than Western creek, (H = 1.67). There was also a significant difference in the total biomass between the creeks (t= -8.44, df. = 53, p < 0.0001) and among species (F = 14.6, df = 79, p < 0.0001) with a mean of 7.25 ± 4.2 Mg C ha-1, (range: 4.1 - 12.9 Mg C ha-1). Sediment carbon varied between species within the 1.2 km2 creeks area; with a range from 97.6 to 302.4 Mg C ha-1, (mean: 183.4 ± 100.5 Mg C ha-1). This is lower than 236 ± 24 Mg C ha-1, reported in the open bay but within the global range. In all the species, vegetated areas showed significantly higher carbon values than the un-vegetated sites (t = 12.02 p < 0.0001). Based on this study, the total seagrass carbon stocks can be estimated at 21,118.8 Mg C. Using the IPCCC emission value of 7.9 tonnes of C ha-1, values for organic soils for wetlands, conservation of seagrass in these two mangrove fringed creeks will prevent emission of 2,682.13 Mg of CO2 equivalent yr-1 to the atmosphere. The avoided emission could be bundled with the existing offset scheme in the bay involving mangroves. Inclusion of seagrass in carbon offset scheme has a long term benefits of climate, community livelihood and biodiversity conservation.Item Spatial Variation in Adoption of Rainwater Harvesting Techniques in Meru County, Kenya.(Chuka University, 2019-09) Mbogori, Agnes KarwithaRainwater harvesting has been used to address water shortage in various regions. The harvested rainwater is used for domestic purposes, irrigation and agricultural processing. Various technologies have been used over time with improvements on the old technologies as well as introduction of new technologies. Rainwater harvesting systems can be constructed with inexpensive locally available materials. People use tanks attached to roofs, caves, earth dams, underground trenches among others. However, despite the economic viability and potential of RWH techniques for improving agriculture and livelihoods, the adoption of RWH techniques by farmers is not adequate. This calls for an examination and evaluation of socio-economic factors that influence the spatial variation in the adoption of rainwater harvesting techniques in the region. A large part of Buuri Sub-County of Meru County is dry and falls in the rain shadow of Mt. Kenya with no permanent rivers and with few community-based water projects, thereby posing a great shortage of water. Like in other hot and dry parts of Kenya, rainwater harvesting has been intensively promoted in Buuri Sub-County to meet domestic needs, irrigation and other purposes. The study was guided by three objectives: (1) To investigate whether the residents of Buuri Sub-County engage in rainwater harvesting, (2) to investigate which rainwater harvesting techniques are used in Buuri Sub-County, and (3) to determine the socio-economic factors that influence the spatial variation in the adoption of rainwater harvesting techniques in the area. The study was an adoption study of descriptive survey design. The target population was 2503 homesteads in Buuri Sub-County, and a sample size of 101 respondents was selected through purposive sampling. Questionnaires were used as the instruments of data collection. Qualitative data obtained was analysed thematically. The quantitative data obtained from the study was analysed using Chi-Square tests, Pearson correlation, t-tests, one way ANOVA, and binary logistical regression. The study revealed that there was inadequate harvested rainwater despite wide adoption of rainwater harvesting (95% of the farmers), with tanks not exceeding 4000 litres highly utilised. This could be attributed to a general lack of awareness on other appropriate rainwater harvesting technologies. Additionally, the findings showed that age, academic qualification, and occupation influenced the respondents’ choices of rainwater harvesting technologies. The study revealed that the two regions chosen i.e: Kamutune and Kiirua had a slight difference in adoption of RWHTS, which was 93.5% and 97.8% respectively. Based on these findings, the study recommends the intervention of Rainwater Harvesting Techniques through infrastructural development, financial incentives, and awareness creation to popularise the adoption of alternative techniques of rainwater harvesting for commercial, domestic, and agricultural purposes by the residents of Buuri Sub-County.Item Effect of Teenage Pregnancy on Psychosocial Wellbeing of Expectant Teenage Girls And Their Coping Mechanisms Among Girls in Trans Nzoia West Sub-County, Kenya(Chuka University, 2019-09) Njuki, Naomi GatwiriTeenage pregnancy refers to the situation where young girls ranging from thirteen to nineteen years of age become pregnant. During their pregnancy the teenage girls are affected in their psychosocial lives. The expectant teenage girls also tend to employ coping mechanisms which can be positive or negative. Psychosocial wellbeing is the positive affective state such as personal growth, positive relations and self-acceptance and interpersonal relations of the expectant teenage girls. The cases of teenage pregnancy have been on the rise. In Trans Nzoia County the teenage pregnancy rate is 18 percent. Expectant teenage girls have been reported to procure abortions which have led to death and other health problems among expectant teenage girls. Societal coping mechanisms are essential for the expectant teenage girls to cope with pregnancy. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish the effect of teenage pregnancy on psychosocial wellbeing of expectant teenage girls and their coping mechanisms among girls in Trans Nzoia West Sub County. The study applied two theories which are Crisis theory by Caplan and Problem Behaviour Theory by Jessor. The study used the descriptive survey research design. This design was considered appropriate for the study because it is useful in securing evidence concerning an existing situation or current condition. The target population for this study was 136 expectant teenage girls in Trans Nzoia West Sub County. The sample size was 103 expectant teenage girls who were sampled using purposive sampling technique. A pilot study was carried out to test for the reliability of the instruments. The validity of the instruments was ascertained through expert judgment from Chuka University Department of Education and other experts. A pilot study was carried out to test for the reliability of the instruments. The reliability co-efficient of the tools was tested using split half technique and Spearman rho correlation coefficient. The obtained reliability co- efficient of the instruments was 0.83. Data was collected by use of Focus Group Discussion and Questionnaires which were administered to the expectant teenage girls and interviews were conducted among the nineteen nurses. The data collected was organized, coded, tabulated and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The findings showed that expectant teenage girls were experiencing low self-esteem, poor interpersonal relationship and depressive symptoms. The expectant teenage girls reported that they felt unfortunate because of the pregnancy. They were also very critical of themselves and do not like interacting with others. Participants gave reports that teenage pregnancy was seen as a shameful event for the teenagers involved. This led to poor interpersonal relationship with their partners and relatives. The study showed aspect of depressive symptoms whereby expectant teenagers reacted to the realization of pregnancy with anxiety, hopelessness and thoughts of taking away their lives. The study also found out that the expectant teenagers were using coping mechanisms such as religion, social support and counseling. These coping mechanisms have made the expectant teenagers cope with their pregnancy better. The findings and recommendations of this study may provide information to expectant teenage girls concerning coping mechanisms that can be used to cope with teenage pregnancy better. The information may help the Ministry of education to be aware of the necessary factors to take into consideration when formulating and implementing policies and programmes designed to sensitize teenagers about the effect of teenage pregnancy and coping mechanisms of teenagers who are pregnant.Item Access and Utilization of Seasonal Climate Forecast Among Small Holder Farmers in Masinga Sub-County, Machakos County, Kenya(Chuka University, 2019-09) Masesi, Gideon KyaloClimate change in Kenya and other East African countries is expected to manifest itself in shifts in seasons and increased frequencies of extreme weather events, such as droughts, heavy rainfall and associated flooding. As climate continues to change, seasonal forecasts will become even more crucial as one way of informing farmers of short-term weather dynamics, impending seasons of below- or above-normal rainfall and extreme rainfall events. Kenyan government has invested considerable resources into the development of understanding and technologies to meet the expected demands of its citizens for improved climate forecasts. Regrettably, many of the benefits of these investments have not yet been realized as farmers do not use this forecasts information to make agricultural sound decisions, hence benefits to the nation are considerably less than they might be otherwise. This therefore called for a study to evaluate the access and utilization of seasonal climate forecast among households in Masinga Sub County, Machakos County in Kenya. A cross-sectional survey research design was used. A systematic random sampling procedure was employed to select 274 respondents in the four sub locations of Masinga Sub County. Structured questionnaires were used to elicit required information from the respondents. Data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Pearson‟s correlation coefficient was utilized to establish relationship between some socioeconomic characteristics and utilization of climate forecasts. Results indicated that 82% of the respondents were able to access climate forecasts through radio, and television. Majority of the respondents indicated that their major interest was to know the start and the end of rain (63%). Radio was the major source of climate forecast (38%) with 90% of the respondents getting information from radio and 60% from television. Above 60% of the respondents indicated that the climate forecast information received from dissemination channels was inaccurate. Over 60% indicated that bulletins used very difficult and complicated language while chief “Barraza‟s” was considered to use simple language (56%). Inadequate extension officers (84%) was a limitation to access to climate forecast information. Majority of the respondents (54%) use both indigenous knowledge on climate forecast and seasonal climate forecasts, however 61% stated that they were very unsatisfied with scientific forecasts. Inaccuracy of forecasts (98%) was a key factor affecting adoption of climate forecast. Over 80% of the respondents felt that climate forecasts cover a wide area making it difficult for them to relate the climate reports to their specific local areas. It was noted that seasonal climate forecast information given by the relevant institutions are coarse thus providing little or no detail on the local characteristics of a season, and do not reflect the localized pattern of rainfall. Moreover, difficult terminologies used in climate forecasting limit their usability and usefulness to farmers and other users. Majority of farmers lack confidence in forecasts issued by KMD and perceive them to be incorrect. Most of the climate forecasts broadcasts are done at the wrong time of day, when the households were out in the fields or in their daily activities. This hinders usability of climate forecasts by the targeted groups. The study further established a significant relationship between land, income, age, education level and gender with utilization of climate forecast. Therefore, based on the major findings of this research it is recommended that, (i) climate forecasts should be downscaled into regional level and should be location specific to increase utility (ii) disseminate climate forecast through local media in local languages so that information can reach local farmers (iii) probabilistic nature of seasonal forecasts should be given with technical guidance to help farmers interpret vii easily and respond to the forecast and (iv) climate forecasts should be issued in the evening between 6.00 p.m-9.00 p.m. to reach a large audience.