Masters Projects and Theses

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A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF KENYA’S BUILDING BRIDGES INITIATIVE SPEECHES
(Chuka University, 2023-10) GITONGA EURIDISE NKATHA
Language is vital in communication between people. People understand each other through shared knowledge between the speaker and the hearer. It is a major mechanism within the process of social construction, seen as an instrument for consolidating, manipulating concepts, seek attention, create relationships in the area of power, and use it as tool to control the society. Anchored in Critical Discourse Analysis theoretically, this study shed light on the crucial use of language in the society. The study sought to explain specific linguistic ways in which language is used to represent an instrument of control and manifest symbolic power in the Kenya’s Building Bridges initiative speeches. The study developed and proposed various strategies of (de) legitimization employed by political leaders in Kenya to justify their course of action regarding the Building Bridges initiative. The study was guided by two objectives; to analyze how political actors (de) legitimize the Building Bridges Initiative in Kenya and to analyze how political actors, use language to create a Kenyan identity through the Building Bridges Initiative discourse. Qualitative research methodology was used in this study, of which the descriptive survey method was employed for the analysis of data. YouTube videos of speeches made by specific political actors regarding the Building Bridges Initiative since November 2019 to 2021 were purposively sampled, transcribed and analyzed in their written form. De(legitimization) strategies were identified until saturation point was reached where no new strategies were being generated without resulting to redundancy. These were then categorized into thematic areas in accordance to the objectives of the study. The study established that strategies used by politicians in (de)legitimizing BBI were; authorization, rationalization, moral evaluation, and mythopoeic. It also established that majority of the speakers used language to attract attention, and advance ideologies that created a Kenyan identity. The study found that Kenya’s identity was to a large extent shaped negatively in the BBI discourse with only two out of the six having a positive orientation. These included: Kenya as a nation in need of national conversation, Kenya as a country struggling with tribalism and corruption and Kenya as a peaceful country with fairness and inclusivity. The information gathered in this study is useful to linguists since it provides them with ways to understand the language of politicians world over. Politicians may use language with hidden meaning that needs unravelling. Therefore, this study offers some of the ways of understanding and disambiguating what the politicians really say in their speeches. From the findings of this research, the researcher suggests the following areas for interested scholars: A study on creation of identity using other theories for example politeness theory, speech acts theory, or conceptual metaphor theory.
A History of Social Exclusion and Poverty of the Thagichu of Igembe Sub - County, Meru County from 1907 to 1962
(INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, 2016-08) Kithinji, Caroline Mucece, Okelo,David O. and Kaburi, Muriungi Colomba
This study is on social exclusion and poverty of the Thagichu of Igembe Sub - County, Meru County in Kenya from 1907 to1962. The study traces the history of social exclusion of the Thagichu from the colonial epoch of the years1907 to 1962. Kenyan Government strategies towards alleviation of social exclusion and poverty between 2013 1nd 2015 are also explored. The study was guided by the theories of Underdevelopment, Materialistic Conception of History and Social Darwinism. The study employed the descriptive research design. Data was collected from oral, archival and secondary sources. A total of 50 people were purposively sampled and interviewed. Data from oral sources was corroborated with data from archival and secondary sources. The major findings of this research are that the Thagichu have been socially excluded by the colonial Government. This exclusion was noted in inadequate infrastructure like roads, schools, hospitals and lack of access to social services like banks compared to other areas of Meru County. The study also established that the government has come up with strategies that could help in tackling social exclusion and poverty of the Thagichu. Such strategies are building more educational facilities, provision of free primary and day secondary education, adult and continuing education, non-formal education and provision of educational funds through the constituency development fund and Affirmative Action Social Development Fund. Other strategies aimed at poverty alleviation are establishment of road networks, land adjudication, presence of NGOs, provision of formal employment, Health facilities, growth of an urban centre and Provision of electricity. This study has contributed to the Thagichu historiography
AB INITIO STUDY OF STRUCTURAL AND PIEZOELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF HAFNIUM DOPED BISMUTH SODIUM POTASSIUM TITANATE
(Chuka University, 2023-10) MWANZIA BONFACE MUTUKU
Piezoelectric materials have gained increased attention in the recent times due to their significant technological applications. These materials are widely used to make ultrasound transducers, sensors, actuators and others are used for energy harvesting. Due to its brilliant piezoelectric properties, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) is mostly used with a piezoelectric constant of 𝑑33 = 374 𝑝𝐶/𝑁 from experimental reports and 306 − 314 𝑝𝐶/𝑁 from theoretical studies. However, due to the toxic nature of lead oxide which is formed when PZT is being manufactured, there is increased effort in development of lead-free materials. Several classes of materials have recently been studied and are now being considered as potential alternatives to PZT. Lead free perovskite systems such as Bismuth Sodium Potassium Titanate (BNKT) have been developed, with a piezoelectric constant 𝑑33 = 157 𝑝𝐶/𝑁 . However, the main drawback of this system is that it is highly corrosive and has a low piezoelectric constant compared to PZT. In the quest to provide suitable alternatives, dopants such as zirconium have been used, which improved the piezoelectric constant of BNKT up to203 𝑝𝐶/𝑁. Hf which possesses similar physico-chemical properties as zirconium has led to an improvement in the piezo electric constant of other piezoelectric systems such as in hafnium doped Barium Titanate (BT). It has an added advantage of being extremely resistant to corrosion, which is expected to mitigate the corrosive nature of BNKT. In this study, hafnium has been incorporated in BNKT so as to engineer an alternative material suitable for piezoelectric applications. Density Functional Theory (DFT) method was used to predict the structural and piezoelectric properties of hafnium doped BNKT, starting with those of Bismuth Sodium Titanate (BNT) and BNKT. The exchange and correlation was taken as the Generalized Gradient Approximation (GGA). The optimal lattice parameters for BNT were found to be 𝑎 = 5.57 Å and 𝑐/𝑎 ratio of 2.50 for the conventional cell, having space group R3c space group number 161. Piezoelectric constant for this system was found to be 97.67 pC/N. This structure was adopted for doping and further calculations. Potassium doped bismuth sodium titanate was modelled using VESTA software and its optimized lattice parameter was found to be 𝑎 = 5.60 Å. Piezoelectric constant for this system was found to be 147.42 pC/N. Hafnium doped BNKT had an improved piezoelectric constant of 205.52 pC/N for 3% hafnium doping, which decreased to 163.22 pC/N at the level of 6% doping. The results shows that small amounts of hafnium improved the piezoelectric constant of BNKT from 147.42 pC/N to 205.52 pC/N. Elastic and elastic compliance full tensors for these systems was also generated with elastic constants of C33 = 286.48 Gpa, 282.13 Gpa, 257.193 Gpa and 276.43 Gpa for BNT, BNKT, 3% Hf doped BNKT and 6% Hf doped BNKT respectively. This study concludes that doping BNKT with hafnium indeed improves the piezoelectric properties of BNKT. This makes this material more useful in energy generation since high piezoelectric constant leads to efficient mechanical – electrical energy conversion in the piezoelectric materials.
Access and Utilization of Seasonal Climate Forecast Among Small Holder Farmers in Masinga Sub-County, Machakos County, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2019-09) Masesi, Gideon Kyalo
Climate change in Kenya and other East African countries is expected to manifest itself in shifts in seasons and increased frequencies of extreme weather events, such as droughts, heavy rainfall and associated flooding. As climate continues to change, seasonal forecasts will become even more crucial as one way of informing farmers of short-term weather dynamics, impending seasons of below- or above-normal rainfall and extreme rainfall events. Kenyan government has invested considerable resources into the development of understanding and technologies to meet the expected demands of its citizens for improved climate forecasts. Regrettably, many of the benefits of these investments have not yet been realized as farmers do not use this forecasts information to make agricultural sound decisions, hence benefits to the nation are considerably less than they might be otherwise. This therefore called for a study to evaluate the access and utilization of seasonal climate forecast among households in Masinga Sub County, Machakos County in Kenya. A cross-sectional survey research design was used. A systematic random sampling procedure was employed to select 274 respondents in the four sub locations of Masinga Sub County. Structured questionnaires were used to elicit required information from the respondents. Data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Pearson‟s correlation coefficient was utilized to establish relationship between some socioeconomic characteristics and utilization of climate forecasts. Results indicated that 82% of the respondents were able to access climate forecasts through radio, and television. Majority of the respondents indicated that their major interest was to know the start and the end of rain (63%). Radio was the major source of climate forecast (38%) with 90% of the respondents getting information from radio and 60% from television. Above 60% of the respondents indicated that the climate forecast information received from dissemination channels was inaccurate. Over 60% indicated that bulletins used very difficult and complicated language while chief “Barraza‟s” was considered to use simple language (56%). Inadequate extension officers (84%) was a limitation to access to climate forecast information. Majority of the respondents (54%) use both indigenous knowledge on climate forecast and seasonal climate forecasts, however 61% stated that they were very unsatisfied with scientific forecasts. Inaccuracy of forecasts (98%) was a key factor affecting adoption of climate forecast. Over 80% of the respondents felt that climate forecasts cover a wide area making it difficult for them to relate the climate reports to their specific local areas. It was noted that seasonal climate forecast information given by the relevant institutions are coarse thus providing little or no detail on the local characteristics of a season, and do not reflect the localized pattern of rainfall. Moreover, difficult terminologies used in climate forecasting limit their usability and usefulness to farmers and other users. Majority of farmers lack confidence in forecasts issued by KMD and perceive them to be incorrect. Most of the climate forecasts broadcasts are done at the wrong time of day, when the households were out in the fields or in their daily activities. This hinders usability of climate forecasts by the targeted groups. The study further established a significant relationship between land, income, age, education level and gender with utilization of climate forecast. Therefore, based on the major findings of this research it is recommended that, (i) climate forecasts should be downscaled into regional level and should be location specific to increase utility (ii) disseminate climate forecast through local media in local languages so that information can reach local farmers (iii) probabilistic nature of seasonal forecasts should be given with technical guidance to help farmers interpret vii easily and respond to the forecast and (iv) climate forecasts should be issued in the evening between 6.00 p.m-9.00 p.m. to reach a large audience.
ANALYSIS OF AGRONOMIC, PRODUCTION COST AND COOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT ON EARNINGS OF SMALLHOLDER COFFEE FARMERS IN RUNYENJES SUB-COUNTY, EMBU COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2020-12) Ndirangu, Samuel Gitonga
Coffee is an important crop globally but many farmers get relatively low earnings from this enterprise. This has contributed to many farmers opting out of coffee production for other enterprises which has further weakened the coffee industry. This study was aimed at assessing the factors that affected the earnings of smallholder coffee farmers in Runyenjes Sub-county, Embu County, Kenya and was carried out between February and September, 2020. Data on agronomic practices, production cost and management of coffee cooperative societies was collected using questionnaires from a sample of 384 smallholder farmers and 30 cooperative management officials from the 10 coffee cooperative societies. Data collected on cooperative management and production cost was analyzed using ordinal logistic regression model. Chi-square statistics were used for hypothesis testing for data on agronomic practices in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. The results revealed that agronomic practices affected the earnings of smallholder coffee farmers. Fertilizer application, spraying and manure application, weeding and pruning had a strong effect on earnings with Cramer’s V coefficients of 0.67, 0.61 and 0.31, respectively. Pruning and weeding had a small effect on earnings with Cramer’s V coefficients of 0.06 and 0.07, respectively. Resource management and strategic planning were significant positive predictors (p=0.001 and p=0.001, respectively). Transport cost and cost of improved cultivars were also significant positive predictors of earnings (p=0.003 and p=0.002, respectively). The study concluded that agronomic practices, production cost and cooperative management affected smallholder farmers’ coffee earnings. The study recommended that cooperative societies should develop a follow-up procedure on the farm level to ensure adherence to the husbandry practices and that the government should formulate policies that enable smallholder farmers to access farm inputs at subsidized prices for increased earnings and reliance on coffee production. The study also recommended that cooperatives should help put up factory managed nurseries that will establish high quality cultivars for farmers at lower costs.
ANALYSIS OF CROSS-METAPHORICAL COHERENCE IN G𝑰̃CHUKA SOCIAL DISCOURSE
(Chuka University, 2022-09) Miriti, Emise
ABSTRACT This study analyzed the different metaphors used in various G𝑖̃chuka speech events with particular focus on coherence in metaphors and the influence of social context on metaphor use. The aim of this study was to investigate how Gĩchuka social discourse is systematically structured by metaphor. Metaphor determines how people think, speak and how they create and understand their world. Metaphor overlap creates both metaphorical and disourse coherence which makes comprehension better. The objectives of this study were: to discuss the metaphors used to conceptualize various aspects of life in Gĩchuka social discourse; to analyze coherence in Gĩchuka social discourse and to establish how social context influences metaphor use in Gĩchuka social discourse. This study was guided by the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) by Lakoff and Johnson. It employed purposive sampling of eleven Gĩchuka speech events which included: a dowry negotiation ceremony, funeral arrangement and burial ceremony, a religious meeting, a table banking activity (chama), a funds drive, a work activity, a birthday occasion, a house warming accasion, a home coming occasion for an initiate, a community charity meeting and a thanks- giving occasion to parents. Different and unrelated speech events which cut across the main Gĩchuka social domains were selected with the aim of eliciting varied metaphors by which phenomena is conceptualized in Gĩchuka social discourse. Pile Sort Tasks were used to group the data for analysis, and the various metaphors were identified using the Metaphor Identification Procedure Vrije Universiteit (MIPVU). This study found Gĩchuka social discourse to be highly motivated by metaphor. Ontological metaphors were the most predominantly used metaphors in Gĩchuka social discourse. The JOURNEY metaphor was found to be used simultaneously with most metaphors to create coherence within the discourse and among metaphors. The study establishes that the social context plays a significant role in metaphor use in Gĩchuka social discourse. This study deepens the understanding of the nature of metaphors that motivate Gĩchuka social discourse. The metaphors highlighted in this study will be useful for cross-culture studies. This study contributes to knowledge in cognitive linguistics by conventionalizing and invigorating the use of metaphors in Gĩchuka social discourse, which increases vitality in African languages.
ANALYSIS OF MARKETING CHANNELS, INPUTS AND FARMER CHARACTERISTICS ON TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF ORANGE FLESHED SWEET POTATO PRODUCTION IN MIGORI COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) JABUYA LAWRENCE OTIENO
Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas L.), particularly the orange fleshed, has gained prominence due to its ability to adapt to wide production ecologies and yield response to minimal inputs. Orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSPs) can produce up to 50 tonnes per hectare, improving household income and nutrition in Kenya. However, production in Kenya remains low, with smallholder OFSP farmers producing an average yield of 14 tonnes per hectare. The influence of inputs, farmer characteristics and marketing channel factors on OFSP production by smallholder farmers in Western Kenya has not been fully studied. This research was carried out to assess the technical efficiency of orange fleshed sweet potato smallholder farmers through analysis of inputs, farmer characteristics and marketing channels in Suna East and Kuria West Sub-Counties of Migori County. A descriptive study design was adopted and a cluster random sampling technique was used to select 225 respondents from approximately 6500 OFSP farmers. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data on input factors, smallholder farmers’ credit access and marketing channel variables. The key informants of the study were OFSP farmers with the assistance of the County government officials from Migori County. The data was entered into SPSS 28 software and analyzed using Stata 15 software. The Multivariate probit model was used to analyze the factors affecting the choices of smallholder OFSP farmers' marketing channels. The results showed that the distance to markets, grading, farmer age, education levels, storage capacity, market assurance, extension visits, group membership and cost of packaging materials influence the smallholder farmers' marketing channel choice decision. The stochastic frontier model was used to analyze the effect of inputs, farmer characteristics, and marketing channels on technical efficiency. The land set aside for OFSP production, planting vines, fertilizer, manure and family labour were the major inputs in the efficiency of OFSP production, according to the model parameters computed using the maximum likelihood method. The technical efficiency of OFSP production among smallholder farmers varied, with the least efficient producing at 36.98 % and the most efficient producing at 99.93 %. Smallholder farmers estimated mean technical efficiency was 78.07%, indicating a need to improve OFSP production by 21.93%. The technical efficiency of smallholder OFSP production was highly influenced by the inefficiency variables like years of farming experience, gender, extension visits, market distance, size of the household, and access to training. Smallholder OFSP farmers produced 8.453 tonnes per hectare with available farm inputs. Farmers can significantly increase the existing level of OFSP technical efficiency of production in the region by concentrating on better use land, use of clean planting materials and hiring labour. Smallholder farmers should be advised to seek services from extension agents and attend training frequently to reduce production inefficiencies. In addition, interventions are required to strengthen the marketing and production capacities of smallholder OFSP farmers.
ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY IN COWPEA PRODUCTION, CHUKA SUB-COUNTY, THARAKA NITHI COUNTY, KENYA.
(Chuka University, 2022-09) GLORY, NTINYARI
Cowpea production is a significant enterprise for smallholder farmers in Chuka Sub-County because of its cheap supply of nutritious food and it’s also a source of revenue for the farmers. Despite its importance, cowpea production levels are a fraction of the potential due to low technical efficiency in enhancing soil fertility, agronomic practices, pest control, farm input utilization among others. This affects the revenue levels and food security of the smallholder farmers. This research aimed to analyze the production, socio-economic and institutional factors that affect smallholder farmers’ technical efficiency on cowpea production in Chuka Sub-County, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. Cross-sectional data on cowpea production was obtained utilizing the multistage sampling procedure from a sample of 389 households in Mugwe, Magumoni and Karingani Wards. The target population was 12905 households. A structured questionnaire was administered to collect data and information on the production, socio-economic and institutional factors affecting smallholder farmers’ technical efficiency. Descriptive research design was utilized to define the socio-economic and institutional qualities of the smallholder cowpea farmers. The stochastic production frontier model that is the Cobb Douglas production function, one step approach was used to ascertain the level of technical efficiency of the farmers, and the production, socio-economic and institutional factors influencing technical efficiency. The respondents’ approximated average technical efficiency was 34%, which suggests that there is a chance of improving cowpea production by 66% through competent utilization of the existing production factors. The model parameters for the production factors approximated using the maximum likelihood method showed that labour, topdressing fertilizer, manure, pesticides and land size were significant production factors in cowpea production at a 5% level of significance. Further age, education, farming experience, extension contact and access to digital financial services significantly affected cowpea production technical efficiency. If the parameter coefficient has a negative sign, it implies that as the independent variable increases, technical efficiency levels increase since the level of technical inefficiency decreases. A positive sign for the parameter coefficient indicates that when the independent variable increases, technical efficiency will decrease because technical inefficiency will increase. The negative coefficients on the farming experience, education, and extension contact variables showed that an increase in any of the variables while maintaining the other variables constant might lead to a substantial improvement in the level of technical efficiency. The positive coefficients on age and access to digital financial services showed that an increment in those variables while maintaining the other variables constant, might result in a substantial decrease in the level of technical efficiency. Thus, cowpea farmers were not producing at their maximum capacity with the existing production factors. This study urges cowpea farmers to boost the use of labour, topdressing fertilizer, manure, pesticides and land size to improve production. For the purpose of improving cowpea production, farmers are encouraged to attend more trainings on cowpea production to add on to their knowldge and to contact extension officers to the highest frequency possible. The study’s findings are beneficial to the cowpea farmers, agricultural institutions and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperative. The cowpea farmers get to know the factors they can alter and improve their level of technical efficiency while the agricultural institutions and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperative can add to their information on the level of technical efficiency of cowpea farmers in Chuka Sub-County, Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya.
ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY OF SMALLHOLDER BANANA PRODUCERS IN KIRINYAGA CENTRAL SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) MATIVA JACKSON MKENYE
Banana provides food, nutrition security and income for most households and is fourth most popular food crop in the world after wheat, maize and rice. Despite its significance, full potential of banana production in Kenya remains unexploited by smallholder producers. This is as a result of low technical efficiency especially in utilization of farming inputs and producer specific factors like production, socio-economic and institutional factors among others. In Kirinyaga County, the actual banana production is at 4-18 tonnes per acre against the potential of 30-40 tonnes. Due to the limited supply of resources for production, attainment of highest possible levels of technical efficiency is key to achieving sufficiency in banana farming. This study aimed at analyzing the effects of production, socio-economic and institutional factors on technical efficiency of smallholder banana producers in Kirinyaga Central Sub-County, Kenya. The study used a cross-sectional research design and targeted a population of 24,440 smallholder banana producers. Multistage sampling technique was employed where purposive sampling and simple random sampling methods were used in some stages to sample respondents in the study area. A sample of 402 smallholder banana producers were selected. Using a questionnaire, primary data on production, socio-economic and institutional factors affecting technical efficiency of banana production was collected. The data was then analyzed using Stata version 17 and SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the production, socio-economic and institutional factors of the smallholder banana producers. A stochastic frontier analysis approach was used to model the technical efficiency level using the Cobb-Douglas function. The stochastic production function of the Cobb Douglas function was estimated using the maximum likelihood estimation technique. The study showed that the level of banana production technical efficiency among the smallholder producers varied between 0.9% to 95.5% and average technical efficiency of 83.1%. According to the model parameters calculated, land set aside for production of banana, banana suckers and agrochemicals were significant production factors in banana cultivation at 5% significance level. The study found that agrochemicals and planting materials had positive effects on technical efficiency whereas land size had a negative impact on technical efficiency. This implied that increasing the amount of land set aside for banana production by an acre reduces the amount of banana harvested by 0.438 kgs while increasing the amount of planting materials and agrochemicals used by one unit increases banana production by 1.315 and 0.155 kgs, respectively. The study found that decision makers’ age and size of the household had negative effects on banana production technical efficiency whereas education, experience, producer group membership and market access had positive effects. The study recommends people with high levels of education to venture into banana production. In addition, producer group formation and membership be encouraged for the benefit of increasing technical efficiencies. The inefficient producers are advised to increase their present output by enhancing technical efficiency as a result of the inefficient utilization of their resources throughout production.
ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING SMALLHOLDER FARMER ADOPTION OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES ON MAIZE PRODUCTION, THARAKA NITHI COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) GITONGA HELLENAH MWENDWA
Maize is among the most significant crops in Kenya for food security. Soil and water conservation practices adopted in maize production offer a potential solution to combat climate change by enhancing soil productivity and decreasing soil and water erosion thereby enhancing crop productivity and smallholder farmer’s farm income. Despite various interventions to practice improved soil and water conservation technologies (SWCs) in maize production, adoption of these technologies is low resulting to poor output due to various factors. Therefore, this study aimed at analyzing the socio-economic and institutional factors influencing the adoption of SWCs and subsequent effect on maize yield in Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. A cross-sectional survey research design was used where multi-stage sampling method was applied. Three hundred and eighteen (318) households in Maara and Chuka Sub-Counties were interviewed from a population target of 5250 using a structured questionnaire to obtain data on socio-economic and institutional factors influencing the uptake of SWCs. Descriptive statistics were completed using SPSS version 28 while econometric analysis by Stata version 17. The Propensity Score Matching model (PSM) was employed on the effects of adoption of SWCs on maize yield while Multivariate Probit (MVP) model was employed on both socio-economic and institutional factors affecting the use of SWCs. The MVP model had positive coefficients which indicated that increase in either one of socio-economic and institutional factors increased the adoption of certain SWCs, farm size had a P-value at 1% on intercropping and irrigation, household size P-value at 5%, land topography a P-value at 5% on intercropping, grass strips and stone bunds, extension and training a P-value at 1% on intercropping and grass strips and membership P-value at 1% on intercropping and irrigation. The negative coefficients showed that increase in the factors decreased the adoption of certain SWCs, gender had a P-value at 5% on intercropping and P-value at 10% on mulching, education at 1% on minimum tillage and 5% on stone bunds, perception on soil erosion had a P-value at 1% on intercropping and irrigation and topography of the land had a P-value at 5% on crop rotation. The PSM model applied the logit regression model where positive estimates on socio-economic and institutional factors showed an increase in either of the factors had an increase in adoption of SWCs indicating significance on age at 5% on mulching, household size at 5% on intercropping, land size at 5% on irrigation, extension services at 1% on crop rotation and group membership at 10% on irrigation that influenced adoption of SWCs. The negative coefficients indicated that an increase in either of the factors decreased the adoption of SWCs where land size had a P-value at 5% on grass strips, household size had a P-value at 10% on terraces, age had a P-value at 10% on crop rotation and irrigation, access to extension services had a P-value at 1% on grass strips and group membership had a P-value at 1% on terraces. The PSM used three matching algorithms (Nearest neighbor, radius and stratification) to match the adopters and non-adopters that determined the Average Treatment Effects (ATT). Intercropping and irrigation were positively significant at 5% and 1%, respectively. The positive ATT indicated an average increase in maize yield from intercropping and irrigation as soil and water conservation practices (SWCs) at a range between 290 kgs to 375 kgs and 270 kgs to 725 kgs per hectare, respectively. Stone bunds and minimum tillage were negative and significant at 1%. The negative ATT was significant and showed that there was average decrease in maize production from stone bunds and minimum tillage as SWCs at a range of about 50 kgs to 287 kgs and 248 kgs to 690 kgs per hectare, respectively. The adoption level of SWCs was average given that there was low frequency of implementation by the smallholder maize farmers. Therefore, the study recommends that small-scale maize producers should practice more of intercropping and irrigation as SWCs for increased productivity and increased food security. There is also the need for government and stakeholders’ interventions which will enable small-scale maize farmers to increase on adoption of SWCs that results to improvement in crop output and income.
ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS, AGRONOMIC PRACTICES AND COOPERATIVE DIVERSITY ON COFFEE YIELD GAP AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN NYERI CENTRAL SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) NDUNG’U FLORENCE WAIRIMU
Coffee significantly aids in the reduction of poverty in households, increases the gross domestic product (GDP) of Kenya and generates tax revenue. However, the coffee yields have been declining over the last two decades which is revealed by the reduction in acreage by 30% from 170,000 ha in the 1980s to 108,199 ha in 2021. This has resulted to decrease in production by 70% making it hard for smallholder coffee farmers to benefit from the sector. The ultimate result is a large yield gap between farmers’ actual yields and the potential productivity of the coffee varieties from the KALROCoffee Research Institute, Ruiru. This study aimed at identifying factors (socioeconomic characteristics, agronomic practices and cooperative diversity) influencing coffee yield gap among smallholder coffee farmers in Nyeri Central sub-county, Nyeri County. A cross-sectional research design was used and through the systematic random sampling technique, a sample of 175 smallholder coffee farmers was drawn from the target population of approximately7000 coffee farmers. A semi-structured questionnaire was used for the study with its validity determined by the academic supervisors and the experts in the coffee sector. The reliability of the research instrument was also determined using the split half method. Primary data on coffee farmers’ socio-economic characteristics, agronomic practices and cooperative diversity were collected. The data on socio-economic characteristics, agronomic practices and cooperative diversity were analyzed as descriptive statistics using SPSS version 29 and their effect on coffee yield gap was determined using the fractional logit regression model in STATA version 17. The findings noted that the average farmers’ yields per hectare for Ruiru 11, Batian and SL 28 was 8,593.920 kg/ha, 3,545.277 kg/ha and 1,722.423 kg/ha, respectively. The yield gap estimated was 66,406.080 kgs, 53,454.722 kgs and 38,177.577 kgs for Ruiru 11, Batian and SL 28, respectively. Further, the yield gap index per farmer ranged between 84.99% to 96.90% and the yield gap index per variety was 88.54% for Ruiru 11, 93.78% for Batian and 95.68% SL 28. The model parameters indicated that gender of the household head, schooling years, household size, labour, weed management, disease management, extension, training as well as production and market information were negative but significant independent variables at p<0.05. The insect-pest management was found to have a positive and significant effect on coffee yield gap at p<0.05. The independent variables omitted in the model analysis were found to be insignificant and hence did not affect the outcome in this study. Moreover, negative coefficients indicated that an increase in each of the explanatory variables resulted in a decrease in the coffee yield gap, holding other factors constant. The marginal effect showed the number of units that the independent variable contributed to either increase or decrease the coffee yield gap. The study concluded that the smallholder coffee farmers’ age was 60 years which contributed to increased yield gap while households led by male individuals resulted to minimized yield gaps. Also, the smallholder coffee farmers were producing below their potential as depicted by the large yield gap estimate. Hence, this study suggests that farmers should fully implement the recommended agronomic practices fully and adopt the improved varieties especially Ruiru 11. Also, the Government and other stakeholders should support the extension services so as to increase coffee yields which would result in reduced coffee yield gap.
ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC, PRODUCTION AND MARKETING FACTORS INFLUECING COMMON BEAN COMMERCIALIZATION AMONG SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN CHEPALUNGU SUB-COUNTY, BOMET COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) LANGAT SHEILA CHEPKOECH
Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are important pulses for human nutrition for its edible seeds. Currently, the level of common bean production in Kenya is 0.67 t/ha. Common bean commercialization provides a pathway for improving productivity and food security. The current level of common bean commercialization is at 40% which is regarded low as farmers grow common beans as a subsistence crop which may not be economically sustainable. Subsistence farming is considered inefficient and may not be viable in ensuring food and income sufficiency in the long run. This study aimed at determining socio-economic, production and marketing factors influencing common bean commercialization in Chepalungu sub-county, Bomet County. The study adopted utility maximization theory and a descriptive research design. A cluster random sampling procedure was used to obtain a sample of 313 smallholder common bean farmers from a population of 1,440 common bean farmers. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect primary information on socio-economic characteristics (age, family size, level of education, gender and off-farm income), production factors (land, labor, inputs, capital), and marketing factors (marketing channels, distance to the market, market price, market information and marketing experience) influencing common bean commercialization among smallholder farmers. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS version 29 and STATA version 15 and econometric analysis was done using Stochastic frontier model, multiple regression model and Tobit model. Common bean productivity was measured using technical efficiency and the results from Stochastic frontier model indicated that the technical efficiency was 93.36%. These findings suggest that smallholder common bean farmers can increase current production by 6.64% by increasing their efficiency. Land under common beans, seeds and agrochemicals were significant at 1% and had a positive influence on the level of common bean productivity while family man days had a negative influence on the level of common bean production. The findings further show that distance to the market and farming experience increased technical inefficiencies by 0.68 and 0.24 units respectively. The level of common bean commercialization was 43.46 %. Multiple regression model shows that certified seeds and manure were significant at 1% while second generation seeds, planting fertilizer and hired labor were significant at 5% and positively influenced the level to common bean commercialization. Cropping systems negatively influenced common bean commercialization and was significant at 1% level. Tobit model shows that the quantity of common beans produced, marketing experience, distance to the market, farm gate marketing channel, land size and extension services positively affected common bean commercialization implying that a unit increase in these variables will lead to an increase in common bean commercialization while age and access to market information had significant negative effect at 1% and 5% respectively on commercialization implying that a unit increase in both variables will decrease level of common bean commercialization. The level of productivity was high (93.36%) showing that farmers are more efficient but the level of commercialization was low (43.46%), showing that majority of farmers do not participate in the market. Smallholder common bean farmers in Bomet County are advised to increase the land allotted to common beans, use certified seed and agrochemicals to increase productivity and commercialization. Policy makers are also encouraged to provide farmers with inputs and affordable farming credit so that farmers can afford improved seeds so as to increase common bean productivity which would in turn increase the level of commercialization.
Analysis of Technical Efficiency on Orange Fleshed Sweet Potatoes Production Among the Smallholder Farmers in Migori County Kenya
(science pc, 2024-02-09) Lawrence Otieno Jabuya1, * , Shelmith Wanja Munyiri2 , Martin Kagiki Njogu2
Sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas L.), particularly the orange fleshed variety, have become increasingly popular due to their ability to thrive in various environmental conditions with minimal inputs. Orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSPs) show potential for productivity, yet smallholder farmers in Kenya still struggle to maximize their yields. The factors influencing OFSP production efficiency among these farmers in Western Kenya have not been thoroughly examined. This study evaluated the technical efficiency of OFSP production among smallholder farmers in Migori County. Using a descriptive research design, a sample of 225 OFSP farmers was randomly selected by a cluster sampling technique. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire on inputs and selected socio-economic factors. The data was analyzed using the frontier stochastic model in STATA. Smallholder farmers estimated mean technical efficiency was 77.82% significant variables were; size of the land, availability of planting vines, access to hired labour, gender of the household decision maker, farming experience, household size, land ownership status, participation in training programs and extension services, and proximity to markets, indicating a need to improve OFSP production by 22.18%. These findings suggest that to reduce inefficiencies among smallholder OFSP farmers, targeted training programs are needed to enhance farmers' agronomic knowledge specific to OFSP production. Further, policy interventions should prioritize the provision of extension services to support and improve the performance of OFSP smallholder farmers.
ANALYSIS OF TRANSACTION COST AND TRANSACTOR CHARACTERISTIC EFFECT ON MARKET OUTLET CHOICE AND GROSS MARGINS AMONG IRISH POTATO FARMERS IN KINANGOP SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) KAMAU PATRICK MWANIKI
Irish potato ranks second after maize as an important food crop in Kenya. It has the potential to enhance food security and alleviate poverty among smallholder farmers. Irish potato market outlet choice is among the key decisions in every household since it determines the profits attained by the households. About, 90% of smallholder Irish potato farmers in Kinangop sub-county sell their produce to brokers at the farm gate which result in low (12%) gross margins. On the other hand, brokers sell the produce purchased from farmers to various market outlets earning up to 26-50% profit. Farmer’s profits are reduced by high transaction costs and transactor characteristics. This study therefore aimed at analyzing the transaction cost and transactor’s characteristic effect on market outlet choice and gross margins among smallholder Irish potato farmers in Kinangop sub-county, Nyandarua County. The study employed descriptive research design to collect cross-sectional data from a population of 14,000 smallholder Irish potato farmers. A sample of 241 smallholder Irish potato farmers were selected using a cluster sampling technique. Data on the transactor’s characteristics, transaction cost factors, market outlets, and gross margins was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. A multivariate probit model determined the transaction cost and transactor’s characteristics effect on market outlet choice. Gross margin analysis and quantile regression models were employed to analyze the effects of transaction costs on gross margin. The results showed that majority (92.95%) of Irish potato farmers sold their produce to brokers, 4.56% sold to local market, 2.01 to urban and 1.66% to contracts. Study showed that Irish potato farmers incur an average of Ksh. 8265.14 per acre as transaction cost and information search (50%) contributed to the highest cost. From the multivariate probit results, Age, land size, market distance and phone access were significant (p<0.05) and positive on sale of potatoes through brokers. However, information access was significant (p<0.05) and negative on sale of Irish potato to brokers. Information access (p<0.05) was significant and positive on sale of potato in the local markets. However, land size, market distance, gender and extension service access were significant (p<0.05) and negative on sale of potatoes in the local market. The sale of potatoes in the urban market was significant (p<0.05) and positive for age, information and phone access. Contract markets were significant (P<0.05) and positive for land size, credit access and main occupation but significant (P<0.05) and negative for age, information and phone access. Indirect and direct input transportation cost, indirect market information cost direct market bargaining costs were significant (p<0.05) and negative on the likelihood of selecting brokers. Indirect market transport costs significantly (p<0.05) and positively influenced the likelihood of selling through the brokers. The likelihood of choosing the local market was significant (p<0.05) and positively influenced by direct input transport and direct market bargaining costs. At the first regression (25%) and median (50%) quantile; indirect input transportation, indirect market bargaining, indirect contract marketing, direct contract search, direct market bargaining and direct contract marketing costs positively and significantly (P<0.05) influenced gross margins. At 75% quantile indirect input transport, indirect market bargaining, direct market bargaining and indirect market information search costs significantly (p<0.05) and positively influenced farmers’ gross margins. Therefore, smallholder farmer’s characteristics and transaction costs can determine smallholder farmer’s market outlet decisions and profits. Therefore, the study recommends smallholder Irish potato farmers should be provided with adequate information and be encouraged to form active collective action groups to help in sharing information and collective marketing of Irish potato to minimize the transaction costs and maximize profits.
APPLICATION OF ASYMMETRIC-GARCH TYPE MODELS TO THE KENYAN EXCHANGE RATE AND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS OF TIME SERIES DATA
(Chuka University, 2022-09) NDEGE, ERIC
The critical concern of financial market investors is uncertainty of the returns. The symmetric-GARCH type models can capture volatility and leptokurtosis. However, they do not capture leverage effects, volatility clustering, and the thick tail nature of financial time series. The primary objective of this study was to apply the asymmetric-GARCH type models to Kenyan exchange and balance of payments of time series data to overcome the shortcomings of symmetric-GARCH type models. Secondary objectives included fitting asymmetric-GARCH type models to the Kenyan exchange rate and Balance of payments data, identifying the best asymmetric-GARCH type model(s) that best fit(s) the Kenyan exchange rate and Balance of payments data and forecasting the Kenyan exchange rate and Balance of payments data trends using the best asymmetric-GARCH type model. The study compared five asymmetric Conditional Heteroskedasticity class of models: IGARCH, TGARCH, APARCH, GJR-GARCH, and EGARCH. Monthly secondary data on the exchange rate from January 1993 to June 2021 and Balance of payments from August 1998 to June 2021 were obtained from the Central Bank of Kenya website. Asymmetric GARCH models were fitted to the stationary log-differenced data based on the functions in the RUGARCH package in R. The best fit model is determined based on minimum value of Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC). The optimal variance equation for the exchange rates data was APARCH (1,1) - ARMA (3,0) model with a skewed normal distribution (AIC = -4.6871, BIC = -4.5860) since it accounts for leverage and the Taylor effect. The optimal variance equation for the Balance of payment data was ARMA (1,1) - IGARCH (1,1) model with a skewed normal distribution (AIC = -0.14475, BIC = -0.07882) due to absence of (persistent) volatility clustering in the series. Volatility clustering was present in exchange rate data. Both series did not show evidence of leverage effect. Estimated Kenya’s exchange rate volatility narrows over time, indicating sustained exchange rate stability. While the balance of payment volatility has narrowed over time, the balance of payment deficit keeps widening. Thus, the government should take measures to ensure that it maintains it competitiveness in the global market to attract foreign direct investment and promote exports of goods and services.
APPLICATION OF QUEUING THEORY FOR OPTIMAL CUSTOMER CENTRICITY TO THE BANKING SECTOR IN KENYA
(Chuka University, 2023-10) JUMA SAMWEL KISIANG’ANI
Long queues and waiting times are common in banks, resulting in customer dissatisfaction and low customer retention. The study applied a descriptive research design to investigate queuing dynamics in a banking hall at a commercial bank in Kenya. A single server system (M/M/1) queuing model was used to estimate the average waiting time, system intensity, service time, and optimal number of staff during peak and off-peak periods (July). The study used secondary data on daily waiting times, service times, the number of customers, and servers for May and July 2019, 2020, and 2021 during working hours between 8.30 a.m. and 4 p.m. on Monday to Friday and 8:30 a.m. and 12 p.m. on Saturdays. Data analysis was done using R and Excel. The research findings indicated that the peak periods (May) recorded an average waiting time (AWT) of 13 minutes, 35 seconds in 2019, 10 minutes, 14 seconds in 2020, and 8 minutes, 36 seconds in May 2021. In the off-peak periods (July), an AWT of 3 minutes, 46 seconds, was registered in 2019, 5 minutes, 12 seconds in 2020, and 7 minutes, 42 seconds in 2021. An average service time (AST) of 1 minute 52 seconds in May 2019, 2 minutes 34 seconds in May 2020, and 2 minutes 27 seconds in May 2021. In the off-peak periods (July), an AST of 3 11 seconds was registered in 2019, 3 4 seconds in July 2020, and 2 43 seconds in July 2021. Overall, the system intensities are low to moderate, with the COVID-19 pandemic severely impacting the peak period more than the off-peak. In the peak periods, the service rates averaged 33, 24, and 25 persons per hour in May 2019, May 2020, and May 2021. The respective system intensities were 0.534, 0.360, and 0.492. In the off-peak periods, the average service rates were 19, 20, and 23 persons per hour in July 2029, July 2020, and July 2021. The respective associated system intensities of 0.535, 0.461, and 0.487. From the pooled data for 2019 and 2021, the study recommends that banks operate with an AWT of 6 minutes, 24 seconds, and an AST of 3 minutes. Further, the study established that a bank could work with an optimal four servers with an AST of 2 minutes, 35 seconds (a service rate of 20 people per hour), and achieve a moderate average service intensity of 0.552.
Application of Response Surface Methodology in Modelling and Optimization of The Yields of Common Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) using Animal Organic Manures
(2019-09) Masai, Kimtai Leonard
The objective of design and analysis of experiments is to optimize a response which is influenced by several independent variables. In agriculture, many statistical studies have focused on investigating the effect of application of organic manure on the yield and yield components of crops. With most of these studies showing a clear positive effect of application of organic manures on the yield and yield components of various crops. However, many of these studies do not try to optimize the application of the manures for maximum productivity, but select the best treatment among the treatment range used. This is mainly due to design and analysis of experiments applied. Therefore, there is a need to apply a statistical method that would establish the effect of the application of organic manures on crop production and in addition optimize the levels of application of these manures for maximum productivity. This study aimed at application of response surface methodology for optimization of the yields of common bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) using animal organic manure. The study was conducted at Chuka University Horticultural Demonstration Farm. An experiment laid down in a Randomized Complete Block Design was used. The treatments consisted of three organic manure sources (cattle manure, poultry manure and goat manure) each at three levels (0, 3 and 6 tonnes per ha). Data was collected from six weeks after sowing to physiological maturity. Data collected included the number of pods per plant grain yields at harvest. The data collected was subjected to analysis of variance and multiple Regression Analysis using the R-statistical software. The Central Composite Design was used to develop a second order polynomial model, with a goal of optimizing the multiple responses of common beans to animal organic manure. The findings indicated that there was a positive response of the goat and the poultry manure (p < 0.05) to common bean performance with the interaction of poultry and goat yielding the best results (p-value=1.51E-07)<0.05. Cattle manure did not significantly increase performance of common beans. This could be attributed to slow realise of nutrients and low N content in cattle manure. It was concluded that more use of poultry and goat would increase the yields of common beans in the area of study. The recommended levels of application of the manures in the area of study were 2.1608 t ha-1, 12.7213 t ha-1 and 4.1417 t ha-1 cattle manure, poultry manure and goat manure respectively. These are the optimum levels that would lead to maximum yield of common beans without an extra cost of input.
ASSESSMENT OF QUALITY OF SHALLOW WELLS WATER IN CHUKA SUB-COUNTY, KENYA
(Chuka University, 2020-12) Rugendo, Edith Mwende
Groundwater from shallow wells is an important source of water for domestic and agricultural uses in Chuka Sub-County. However, most shallow wells in Chuka Sub-County are undocumented because approval is not required to sink a shallow well. Groundwater from these shallow wells is therefore susceptible to contamination by both geogenic and anthropogenic sources. This study was conducted to determine the quality of shallow wells water in Chuka Sub-County. Samples were collected from twenty shallow wells in Chuka Sub-County during the dry and wet seasons. The temperature, pH and conductivity were determined in situ using a conductivity meter. The concentration of cations in the water samples was determined using an Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) system. The concentration of chloride and nitrate ions in the water samples were determined using the argentometric and the spectrophotometric method, respectively. The concentration of sulphate ions was determined using a turbidimetric method while the concentration of phosphate ions was determined using a colorimetric method. The data obtained were subjected to ANOVA to test the significance differences using R-3.5.2. Mean comparison was achieved through LSD. The temperatures of the waters were significantly higher during the dry season. The pH of water in most shallow wells during the wet season was within the limits set by KEBS and WHO. However, shallow well water at Karandini (T15) was highly acidic (pH of 3.95) during the wet season. During the dry season, the shallow well waters were slightly acidic (4.42 - 6.44) except for the shallow wells at Ndagani market (T11), whose water was alkaline (pH = 8.75). The shallow wells water at site T11 had remarkably higher conductivities than the other shallow wells in the study area during both the wet (1150 μs/cm) and the dry (1208 μs/cm) seasons. The concentrations of macro-cations (Ca2+ and Mg2+) were higher during the dry season. The concentrations of the trace and toxic cations differed significantly across sites and seasons but were within the limits set by KEBS and WHO. The concentrations of anions (NO3-, SO42-, Cl- and PO43-) were within the limits set by KEBS and WHO for portable water. Groundwater from most shallow wells in Chuka Sub-County is generally safe for domestic uses but regular monitoring for quality is recommended because, the concentration of nitrate in several wells during the dry season was within the range that causes chronic health effects including colorectal, ovarian, thyroid, kidney and bladder cancers.
Assessment of The Distribution, Abundance and Carbon Stocks in Seagrass Meadows Within Eastern and Western Creeks of Gazi Bay, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2019-09) Juma, Gabriel Akoko
Seagrass meadows are one of the most important blue carbon ecosystems within the seascape environment providing both ecological and economic benefits. They act as breeding and feeding grounds for fish and other organisms; perform carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and other ecosystem services. Through their carbon capture and storage ability, seagrass can be incorporated in carbon offset schemes. However, they are highly degraded from both anthropogenic and natural factors. Carbon stocks assessment is required in understanding dynamics of seagrass meadows. In Gazi Bay, Kenya, carbon storage in the seagrass meadows has been determined in the open waters of the Bay. The present study aimed at contributing to carbon dynamics of Gazi bay by assessing the distribution, abundance and carbon storage in seagrass within the mangrove fringed creeks. The objectives included assessing distribution and abundance of seagrass in the creeks, determining above and below ground seagrass biomass and comparing sediment carbon stocks between vegetated and un-vegetated sites. Stratified random sampling strategy was used in collecting data within 80 square plots of 0.25m by 0.25m. Five species formation viz; Thalassia hemprichii, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Enhalus acoroides, and Thalassidendron ciliatum were encountered as either single or mixed stand. A total of 480 samples were collected for sediment and biomass determination in the laboratory. The results showed a higher seagrass diversity in the Eastern creek, (H = 1.71), than Western creek, (H = 1.67). There was also a significant difference in the total biomass between the creeks (t= -8.44, df. = 53, p < 0.0001) and among species (F = 14.6, df = 79, p < 0.0001) with a mean of 7.25 ± 4.2 Mg C ha-1, (range: 4.1 - 12.9 Mg C ha-1). Sediment carbon varied between species within the 1.2 km2 creeks area; with a range from 97.6 to 302.4 Mg C ha-1, (mean: 183.4 ± 100.5 Mg C ha-1). This is lower than 236 ± 24 Mg C ha-1, reported in the open bay but within the global range. In all the species, vegetated areas showed significantly higher carbon values than the un-vegetated sites (t = 12.02 p < 0.0001). Based on this study, the total seagrass carbon stocks can be estimated at 21,118.8 Mg C. Using the IPCCC emission value of 7.9 tonnes of C ha-1, values for organic soils for wetlands, conservation of seagrass in these two mangrove fringed creeks will prevent emission of 2,682.13 Mg of CO2 equivalent yr-1 to the atmosphere. The avoided emission could be bundled with the existing offset scheme in the bay involving mangroves. Inclusion of seagrass in carbon offset scheme has a long term benefits of climate, community livelihood and biodiversity conservation.
BCOM 213: INTERMEDIATE ACCOUNTING II
(Chuka University, 2023-04-11) Chuka university

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