1st International Research Conference Proceedings Chuka University, 2014

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1st International Research Conference Theme: “Enhancing Innovation for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century & Beyond” Proceedings
(Chuka University, 2015) Isutsa, D. K. (Ed.)
Acceptability of Napier Grass, Tithonia (Tithonia Diversifolia) and Sapium (Sapium Ellipticum) As Forages for Sheep in Kenya and Their Nutritive
(Chuka University, 2015) chuka University
There is limited information on acceptability of Tithonia (Tithonia diversifolia) and Sapium (Sapium ellipticum) as forages to sheep in Kenya. This study compared the acceptability of Napier grass, Tithonia and Sapium as forages for sheep. It had five (one and half year old male sheep) selected on the basis of uniformity in live weight, averaging 23 kg. The sheep were housed in individual pens (metabolic unit), measuring 1.5mx1.5mx2.0m and mounted on the concrete floor at Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Embu. The feeding period lasted for 10 days. Data were collected and recorded for 5 days. A sample of each offered and refused experimental diet was collected and recorded for 5 days and oven-dried for determination of moisture content, crude protein, ash content, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber and acid detergent lignin. The neutral detergent fibre levels for wilted Napier grass, Tithonia and Sapium fodder were 80.1%, 33.57% and 39.52% respectively. The acid detergent fiber levels for wilted grass, Tithonia and Sapium hay were 43.58%, 27.98% and 22.4%, respectively. The acid detergent lignin levels for the diets 1, 2 and 3 were 6.12%, 11.3% and 8.87%, respectively. Napier grass, Sapium and Tithonia forages were found to be preferred by the sheep in this order, with an average daily intake in kg/DM of 0.26, 0.11 and 0.18, respectively. Knowing acceptability of the forages could assist in their utilization in improvement of sheep nutrition and productivity.
Adapting To Climate Change: Evaluating the Implementation of Water Resource Management Strategies in Hotels within Lake Naivasha Environs
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Sustainability is complicated by the threat of climate change which presents tourism industry with considerable negative effects, creating an urgent need to manage and use such resources responsibly. Water Resource Management (WRM) has become critical in the tourism industry. Consequently, hotels have a unique responsibility in lessening the real and potential negative impacts on the water and promote sustainable water management and use. This study evaluated adoption of WRM strategies in hotels to attain water sustainability, the current structural and non-structural WRM strategies adopted by selected hotels in the environs of Lake Naivasha, perceived effectiveness of both the structural and non-structural WRM strategies adopted to enhance water sustainability, and structural and non-structural watcensus of 30 Class (A) registered hotels was conducted, and purposive sampling was used to select respondents. Convenience sampling was used to select managers for interviews. Primary data collection used questionnaires and interviews, while secondary data was synthesized from journals, text books, theses and other works and analysed using the SPSS program. Hotels had embraced WRM strategies through development of alternative water resources, water saving technologies, manuals and treatment of recycled water. Structural WRM strategies were perceived to ber management strategies in terms of sustainability in hotels within environs of Lake Naivasha. A e more effective as they impacted more on reducing operating costs, promoted environmental conservation and were more preferred than the non-structural strategies despite being more expensive to implement. Water sustainability is achievable through a combination of WRM strategies. Better water management policies should be formulated and complemented with technological utilization, stiffer penalties on pollution, community involvement, inclusion of donor funding and provision of incentives.
Adapting to Climate Change: Evaluating The Implementation of Water Resource Management Strategies in Hotels Within Lake Naivasha Environs
(Chuka University, 2015) Kinyanjui, D. N.; Kieti, D.; Ipara, H.; Kariuki, J. M.
Sustainability is complicated by the threat of climate change which presents tourism industry with considerable negative effects, creating an urgent need to manage and use such resources responsibly. Water Resource Management (WRM) has become critical in the tourism industry. Consequently, hotels have a unique responsibility in lessening the real and potential negative impacts on the water and promote sustainable water management and use. This study evaluated adoption of WRM strategies in hotels to attain water sustainability, the current structural and non-structural WRM strategies adopted by selected hotels in the environs of Lake Naivasha, perceived effectiveness of both the structural and non-structural WRM strategies adopted to enhance water sustainability, and structural and non-structural water management strategies in terms of sustainability in hotels within environs of Lake Naivasha. A census of 30 Class (A) registered hotels was conducted, and purposive sampling was used to select respondents. Convenience sampling was used to select managers for interviews. Primary data collection used questionnaires and interviews, while secondary data was synthesized from journals, text books, theses and other works and analysed using the SPSS program. Hotels had embraced WRM strategies through development of alternative water resources, water saving technologies, manuals and treatment of recycled water. Structural WRM strategies were perceived to be more effective as they impacted more on reducing operating costs, promoted environmental conservation and were more preferred than the non-structural strategies despite being more expensive to implement. Water sustainability is achievable through a combination of WRM strategies. Better water management policies should be formulated and complemented with technological utilization, stiffer penalties on pollution, community involvement, inclusion of donor funding and provision of incentives.
Adoption and Utilization of Zai Pits for Improved Farm Productivity in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya.
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Small holder farmers in low midland zones of Tharaka-Nithi County are facing challenges in improving agricultural productivity and livelihoods. Low crop yields due to low erratic rainfall, high evapotranspiration, and deteriorating soil health in smallholder farmers’ fields have led to a quest for sustainable production practices with greater resource use efficiency. To alleviate these challenges, impact of zai pits was assessed in terms of factors that influence adoption in Tharaka-Nithi County, located in low midland zones of eastern Kenya. Interview schedules were used to elicit information from 290 farmers. A descriptive statistical analysis approach was used to analyse data. There was significant relationship between farmers who had been visited by an agricultural officer and adoption ((2=6.019, P=0.05), where a higher percentage of farmers who had adopted had been visited by non-governmental extension agents. A significant difference existed between the average farm size of adopters and non-adopters (t=2.7, df=285, P=0.05). There is need to re-evaluate the role that socio-economic variables and farm characteristics contribute in adoption of Zai pits as a water harvesting technology.
Adoption and Utilization of Zai Pits for Improved Farm Productivity in Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya.
(Chuka University, 2015) Muchai, S. W. K.; Baaru, M.; Ngetich, F.; Muna, M. W. M.
Smallholder farmers in low midland zones of Tharaka-Nithi County are facing challenges in improving agricultural productivity and livelihoods. Low crop yields due to low erratic rainfall, high evapotranspiration, and deteriorating soil health in smallholder farmers’ fields have led to a quest for sustainable production practices with greater resource use efficiency. To alleviate these challenges, impact of zai pits was assessed in terms of factors that influence adoption in Tharaka-Nithi County, located in low midland zones of eastern Kenya. Interview schedules were used to elicit information from 290 farmers. A descriptive statistical analysis approach was used to analyse data. There was significant relationship between farmers who had been visited by an agricultural officer and adoption ((2=6.019, P=0.05), where a higher percentage of farmers who had adopted had been visited by non-governmental extension agents. A significant difference existed between the average farm size of adopters and non-adopters (t=2.7, df=285, P=0.05). There is need to re-evaluate the role that socio-economic variables and farm characteristics contribute in adoption of Zai pits as a water harvesting technology.
Amaranth Pigweed Beetle Damage Level Correlates to Environmental Temperature Regimes
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Pigweed beetle Hypolixus haerens Boheman has been cited as a major insect pest of grain amaranth worldwide. This study evaluated injury level of both foliar and stem damage pests on eight varieties of Amaranthus hypochondriacus (L.) during two seasons of production at Katumani (LM4) and Kiboko ((LM5). Stem damage by beetle H. haerens correlates to environmental temperature. The hotter zone of low midlands five (LM5) was drier (43.7 ± 15.9 mm, 28 ± 2°C) than the cooler zone of low midlands four (LM4), which was relatively wetter (57.1 ± 13.8 mm, 24 ± 2°C). Beetle stem tunnel length inversely correlated with yield. The stem damage levels at the cooler zone were lower by 35, 42 and 47% in comparison to those from the hotter zone (LM5). Insect foliar damage level did not reflect direct grain loss. No variety was found resistant to H. haerens stem injury from the eight accessions evaluated. The wetter and cooler zone (LM4) was found to influence lower stem damage and subsequently 5-9 times higher grain yield than the hotter zone. In conclusion, considerations of the environmental factors in each agro-ecological zone would lead to right time of insecticide spray for management of the pests of grain amaranth to prevent yield loss.
Application of open source tools and cloud computing technologies in real-time data collection and analysis
(Chuka University, 2015) Kirui, T. K.
Cloud Computing technology is a new phenomenon that though fully utilized and implemented in developed countries, its power is yet to be tapped in a number of developing countries. There are different kinds of data that can be entrusted to cloud computing providers that would reduce operating costs and save on time and financial resources. This paper sheds light on a number of cloud computing services such as Google App Engine and Open Source tools such as Open Data Kit and how the two can be used in effective data collection and analysis for organizations both governmental and non-governmental as well as business organizations. Google App Engine offers a combination Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS) to be able to provide both a mobile application and web application that can be used to receive data for analysis from field research; every instance of the application can be fully customized to meet the specific data collection needs
Assessment of the current sources for financing educational activities in youth polytechnics in Imenti south district in Kenya
(Chuka University, 2015) Cherui, R.; Kirimi, T.; Kitainge, K.
Despite the rationale for introduction of safety nets such as bursaries and constituency development fund in the education sector, there are increasing concerns over the limited finances in youth polytechnics to provide quality education and training. This is because, almost all educational institutions in Kenya face serious financial constraints due to failure by parents to pay fees promptly. The condition is made worse by introduction of structural adjustment programme and cost sharing policy in the 1980’s. This has given the youth polytechnics in Kenya a big blow because technical education is expensive due to tools and equipment required for education and training. The youth polytechnics are starved of funds and are operating on inadequate resources for both recurrent and capital expenditure. This study sought to assess the current sources of financing education in youth polytechnics in Imenti South District-Meru County. A descriptive survey design was adopted for a youth officer, 2 managers and 43 instructors in two youth polytechnics, giving a total of 46. Purposive sampling technique was employed and the sample size was 27 respondents, namely 1 youth officer, 2 managers and 24 instructors. Data collection used questionnaires, observations and interview schedules. The two main sources of finances for the youth polytechnics were parents and government subsidies. The income from Income Generating Activities and other sources came in third and fourth, respectively. The funds are insufficient for institutions recurrent and development expenditures. Thus the government should increase funding to the youth polytechnics, while youth polytechnics should venture into more Income generating activities to supplement the funding and also increase viability of their programmes.
Characterization and Evaluation of Pumpkin (Cucurbita Moschata Duch.).
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Pumpkin is an emerging important indigenous vegetable in Kenya. However, its potential remains unexploited. This study collected, characterized and evaluated pumpkin germplasm accessions in Kakamega and Nyeri Counties. The 155 accessions collected consisted of 70 and 85 from Kakamega and Nyeri Counties, respectively. Morphological characterization and evaluation was done on-farm in completely randomized design, replicated three times. Morphological characterization and evaluation data were subjected to analysis of variance using the SAS program. Means were separated at P=0.05. Molecular characterization was done by extracting DNA, and polymerase chain reaction was done on 139 accessions using SSR and ISSR primers. Molecular characterization data were scored and phylogenetic analyses conducted using DarWin software. Significant variation (P<0.05) resulted among 146 accessions morphologically. Fruit length to width ratio and fruit weight ranged from 0.7-2.1 cm and 0.5-19.25 kg/accession, respectively. Predominant mature fruit skin colour ranged from green to orange; secondary fruit skin colour from speckled to striped; fruit surface from smooth to warty; and internal flesh colour from white to yellow. Main colour of inner flesh and of outer flesh ranged from yellow to pink-red. Molecular characterization revealed that accessions were varied with amplifications on different loci ranging from 100-500bp for SSR with band ranges of 1 to 4. ISSR primers were more polymorphic with accessions amplified between 200-2000 bp with band ranges of 2 to 7. A total of 526 alleles were identified with 5 SSR primer pairs and 509 alleles with 7 ISSR primers. The Unweighted Pair Group Method of Arithmetic Mean based on Euclidean genetic distance with 1000 bootstraps constructed the dendrograms. There is great variation in pumpkins in Kenya. Cultivars are interbreeding a lot. Conservation of naturalized germplasm needs to be expedited to save it from further distortion and extinction.
Climate Change Mitigation & Adaptation: Climate-Smart Agro-Pastoral Practices: A Case Study of Narok County, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Pastoralism is described by a high reliance on livestock production systems for socio-economic wellbeing. In Kenya it is the dominant form of livelihood in the arid and semi-arid lands, which constitute more than 80% of the total land area, host about 10 m people and 70% of the national livestock herd. Despite these areas being the major meat producers in the country, production is threatened by climate related hazards as witnessed by livestock deaths, reduced daily yields and prices, degraded natural resources, and high incidences of livestock pests and diseases. The traditional coping strategies applied in terms of nomadic pastoralism, has been reduced due to fragmentation of rangelands, forcing them to transform towards sedentary lifestyles. Thus, what can be done to improve this sedentary lifestyle and how can it be sustained within the ASALs? What are the on-the-ground coping strategies that enhance environmental conservation? This study assessed the coping mechanisms applied to the changed lifestyle within the pastoral communities of Narok County that not only improve livelihoods through climate change adaptation but also contribute towards climate change mitigation. This was done using key informant and focus group discussions. Policy guidelines are provided on building capacity through participatory approaches to enhance long-term sustainable systems that will ensure food security to these vulnerable communities, while at the same time contributing to natural resource conservation and ecosystem services.
Climate-Smart Agro-Pastoral Practices: A Case Study of Narok County, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2015) Githae, E. W.
Pastoralism is described by a high reliance on livestock production systems for socio-economic wellbeing. In Kenya it is the dominant form of livelihood in the arid and semi-arid lands, which constitute more than 80% of the total land area, host about 10 m people and 70% of the national livestock herd. Despite these areas being the major meat producers in the country, production is threatened by climate related hazards as witnessed by livestock deaths, reduced daily yields and prices, degraded natural resources, and high incidences of livestock pests and diseases. The traditional coping strategies applied in terms of nomadic pastoralism, has been reduced due to fragmentation of rangelands, forcing them to transform towards sedentary lifestyles. Thus, what can be done to improve this sedentary lifestyle and how can it be sustained within the ASALs? What are the on-the-ground coping strategies that enhance environmental conservation? This study assessed the coping mechanisms applied to the changed lifestyle within the pastoral communities of Narok County that not only improve livelihoods through climate change adaptation but also contribute towards climate change mitigation. This was done using key informant and focus group discussions. Policy guidelines are provided on building capacity through participatory approaches to enhance long-term sustainable systems that will ensure food security to these vulnerable communities, while at the same time contributing to natural resource conservation and ecosystem services
Computer ergonomic issues in learning institutions in Kenya: Case study of Kirinyaga county
(Chuka University, 2015) Shikhuyu, J.; Mwangi, E. G.
Learning institutions are emphasizing computer hardware and software, while neglecting computer hardware compliance with ergonomics. Since non-compliance to good ergonomic practices is not a onetime effect, users are not usually aware of the negative impact on their being until too late. The question of ergonomics is very sensitive during this era when the government is championing use of ICT in all learning institutions. The health-risks that come with non-compliance cannot be underestimated. This study investigated computer ergonomic issues and problems that face students when using computers as tools of learning in selected primary, secondary and university institutions in Kirinyaga County. Purposive sampling was used to select the institutions. Stratified sampling was used to pick the sample size. In each stratum, random sampling was adopted. Total sample size was 350. Closed ended questionnaire was constructed and self-administered to collect information about computer related ergonomic issues and habits of students. Data were analyzed and presented using SPSS V20. Most of the institutions don’t have ergonomic furniture. Laboratories and computer screens were poorly lit. Most institutions used older machines that produced noise and emitted a lot of heat. Laboratories were poorly ventilated and respondents were not aware of ergonomic practices and habits and the risks that come as a result of non-compliance. Learning institutions lack knowledge on the importance of computer ergonomics. Thus stakeholders need to intensify campaigns on computer ergonomics in learning institutions.
Consequences of Large-Scale Land Use Changes on Environment, Livelihood and Food Security in the Yala Swamp Ecosystem in Kenya
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
African wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems and as such play an important role in ameliorating the effects of global warming, biodiversity conservation, as well as natural resources provision, which drives many rural economies. Yala swamp is a large fresh water wetland, a recognized biodiversity hotspot that supports local livelihoods in Lake Victoria basin. This study evaluated the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of converting large parts of the swamp to farming to support perceived food security. Primary qualitative data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews of randomly selected stakeholders. One hundred questionnaires were administered to the stakeholders who included men, women and youth. Secondary data was collected from published work, books, print and electronic media. Although conversion of the Yala swamp wetland is contributing in Corporate Social Responsibility, there exists a strong conflict with the local community. Overall the local community and the environment have been negatively impacted and there will be long-term negative consequences regarding environmental degradation, food security and livelihood opportunities. The Kenyan government should commission a new Environmental Impact Assessment and enact and implement a strong wetland policy. There is need for awareness creation to enhance participation of local communities in decision-making. Other livelihood diversification programmes to reduce dependence on the wetland are also recommended.
Contribution of Multi-Purpose Pumpkin (Curcubita Moschata Duch.) to the Economy of Kenyan Small-Scale Households
(Chuka University, 2015) Kiharason, J. W.; Isutsa, D. K.; Ngoda, P. N.
Kenya’s agricultural sector has generally faced a blow with repeated delays in rains causing suppressed farming. Farmers should therefore grow other non-staple crops which can do well with minimal rainfall. Pumpkin is one such crop that is drought-tolerant and requires very little care and labour. Majority of households do not utilize pumpkins regularly, although it is a multi-purpose food crop capable of forming basis for various products including infant weaning foods, snacks and bakery products. The study established socio-economic status of households and extent of cultivation and sale of pumpkin. A cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire was used among 385 households in Nyeri County of Kenya. Majority of households earned low income, with 56.3% earning less than KSh. 12,000 monthly. Pumpkin was grown by 71.4% of farmers but contributed to livelihoods of only 4.2% households. There was a high correlation between the number of pumpkin plants cultivated and amount of income received from pumpkin sale, r (16)= 0.510, P=0.043. Pumpkin fruit contributes very little to income of the households and is not yet tapped to improve food security and livelihood of people in Kenya. Improving marketability of pumpkin could increase its demand, production level and sale to generate income for many poor rural households.
Contribution of the New Constitution in Promoting Kiswahili Use in Mass Media
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Media plays a major role in the society; it is the medium of providing information, it creates social integration, and promotes shared values, knowledge and entertainment. Proper use of standard language is essential to achieve these objectives. Media industry in Kenya has grown exponentially from the early 1990s. This growth has been characterized by the deployment of the latest technological innovations, increased number of frequency modulated radios and professional media practitioners. Many of the media houses in Kenya today are using different styles and methods to attract and keep listeners for their own economic survival. This paper investigates the effects of new constitution on the language used in the mass media. It highlights the gains that have been made specifically in promoting Kiswahili language as a national and official language as well as the challenges.
Corporate Social Responsibility for Sustainable Development in Africa: A Review of Theory and Practice
(Chuka University, 2015) Chuka University
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) fosters development. Sufficient and effective action by the corporate world has resulted in development. The African continent has however not experienced commendable economic development through CSR. In some situations, communities have been exposed to health risks and greater poverty as companies expropriate community resources and claim to practice CSR for development. This study systematically reviewed literature on CSR and development in Africa over the last 10 years to identify the themes, incentives and challenges in the practice of CSR. Good governance, economic incentives, contextualization of CSR action, appropriate and robust legal and institutional frameworks are essential for CSR to play a meaningful role in developing the continent. This has been hampered by CSR initiatives being uncoordinated and failing to be integrated in core functions of organizations. It is also necessary to contextualize CSR to the needs and environment of Africa. Governments ought to provide a facilitative environment to encourage CSR for development in terms of policy formulation and setting in place oversight bodies to monitor and coordinate CSR activity. Corporate establishments need to form partnerships to reduce the overall cost of CSR and impact greatly on the development. Countries need to encourage companies to disclose their policies and practice so that they are held accountable to governments and communities adjacent to their establishments.
Corporate Social Responsibility for Sustainable Development in Africa: A Review of Theory and Practice
(Chuka University, 2015) Kebati, R. K.; Onyancha, E. O.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) fosters development. Sufficient and effective action by the corporate world has resulted in development. The African continent has however not experienced commendable economic development through CSR. In some situations, communities have been exposed to health risks and greater poverty as companies expropriate community resources and claim to practice CSR for development. This study systematically reviewed literature on CSR and development in Africa over the last 10 years to identify the themes, incentives and challenges in the practice of CSR. Good governance, economic incentives, contextualization of CSR action, appropriate and robust legal and institutional frameworks are essential for CSR to play a meaningful role in developing the continent. This has been hampered by CSR initiatives being uncoordinated and failing to be integrated in core functions of organizations. It is also necessary to contextualize CSR to the needs and environment of Africa. Governments ought to provide a facilitative environment to encourage CSR for development in terms of policy formulation and setting in place oversight bodies to monitor and coordinate CSR activity. Corporate establishments need to form partnerships to reduce the overall cost of CSR and impact greatly on the development. Countries need to encourage companies to disclose their policies and practice so that they are held accountable to governments and communities adjacent to their establishments.
Demystifying negativism of Cartha edulis (miraa) and focusing on its religious-socio-economic and educational significance: A case of Meru north region in Meru county, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2015) Bururia, D. N.; Nyaga, J. N.
For a long time, there have been conflicting stand points with regard to Cartha edulis (Miraa). Miraa is a substance that affects the psychological and physiological functioning of the human body, and therefore, falls under the category of drugs of abuse like alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana and heroin, among others. The National Campaign against Drug Abuse Authority and other scholars have confirmed this. The dilemma of many people, however, is that whereas there are numerous negativisms emanating from Cartha edulis farming, trade and consumption, there are also immense social, religious and economic benefits derived and associated with the same. This study addressed the impact of Miraa on religion-socio-economic and educational spheres of the society, especially in the growing areas of Meru North. It was motivated by conflicting incidences encountered by Miraa farmers and traders who also happen to be members of churches located within the study area and the alleged income purported to be derived from the trade used for social and economic developments. There are both positive and negative contributions brought about by Miraa farming and trade upon the families, schools and churches within Meru North region. Although the negatives outweigh the positives in terms of both short and long-term intangible damages to individuals, family and society, there are strong social, religious and economic attachments to Miraa. For the last few decades, Miraa has assumed political dimension. Exclusive focus on negativism has overshadowed the potential financial, social, educational and religious gains associated with the product, because apart from the economic contribution, Miraa is also alleged to have cultural, religious, as well as medicinal values. These contentions strongly agree that Miraa creates a contextual foundation for communication. However, the negative implications of Miraa and which greatly affect the individual user, the institution of marriage, school and church cannot be ignored. Thus, Miraa has diverse negative effects, but it could also serve a better purpose and value if handled properly since it has certain social-cultural values, especially among the community where is grown.
Demystifying negativism of Cartha edulis (miraa) and focusing on its religious-socio-economic and educational significance: A case of Meru north region in Meru county, Kenya.
(Chuka University, 2015) Bururia, D. N.; Nyaga, J. N.
For a long time, there have been conflicting stand points with regard to Cartha edulis (Miraa). Miraa is a substance that affects the psychological and physiological functioning of the human body, and therefore, falls under the category of drugs of abuse like alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana and heroin, among others. The National Campaign against Drug Abuse Authority and other scholars have confirmed this. The dilemma of many people, however, is that whereas there are numerous negativisms emanating from Cartha edulis farming, trade and consumption, there are also immense social, religious and economic benefits derived and associated with the same. This study addressed the impact of Miraa on religion-socio-economic and educational spheres of the society, especially in the growing areas of Meru North. It was motivated by conflicting incidences encountered by Miraa farmers and traders who also happen to be members of churches located within the study area and the alleged income purported to be derived from the trade used for social and economic developments. There are both positive and negative contributions brought about by Miraa farming and trade upon the families, schools and churches within Meru North region. Although the negatives outweigh the positives in terms of both short and long-term intangible damages to individuals, family and society, there are strong social, religious and economic attachments to Miraa. For the last few decades, Miraa has assumed political dimension. Exclusive focus on negativism has overshadowed the potential financial, social, educational and religious gains associated with the product, because apart from the economic contribution, Miraa is also alleged to have cultural, religious, as well as medicinal values. These contentions strongly agree that Miraa creates a contextual foundation for communication. However, the negative implications of Miraa and which greatly affect the individual user, the institution of marriage, school and church cannot be ignored. Thus, Miraa has diverse negative effects, but it could also serve a better purpose and value if handled properly since it has certain social-cultural values, especially among the community where is grown.

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