Browsing by Author "Kithinji, Caroline M."

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CHANGING TRENDS IN MALE INITIATION RITE OF CIRCUMCISION AMONG THE AMERU OF IMENTI SOUTH SUBCOUNTY (1950-2016)
(Chuka University, 2021) Kathio, Isaac.; Nkonge, Dickson K.; Kithinji, Caroline M.
Male initiation rite of circumcision has been a subject of discussion but the truth has been concealed because it was often presented as an unpenetratable topic by the Ameru because of the secrecy of the rite. The Bukusu, the Maasai, the Pokot, the Agikuyu and the Ameru have over the years carried out the rite traditionally. Changes in male initiation rite of circumcision from traditional to modern among the Ameru of Imenti South Sub County began way back before 1950s. The changing trend has left the Meru people of Imenti South Sub County in a dilemma on the ideal form of male initiation rite of circumcision. This study investigated the changing trends from traditional to modern in male initiation rite of circumcision among the Ameru of Imenti South Sub County between 1950 and 2016. The objectives of the study were to examine the changes in male circumcision practices, to establish the causes of the changes and the effects arising from changes in male initiation rite of circumcision among the Ameru of Imenti South Sub County. The significance of this study is that it contributes to social historiography of the Ameru of Imenti South Sub County. The study covers the period between 1950 and 2016, the peak of colonial domination and the climax of changes respectively. Literature presented is on male initiation among the Ameru, changes in male initiation rite, causes of changes and effects arising from the changes. The study was guided by Modernization Theory in exploring avenues of transition of male initiation rite of circumcision from traditional to modern. Descriptive research design was used. The location of the study was Imenti South Sub County of Meru County. The target population was 61,091 from three divisions in the Sub County namely Nkuene, Abogeta and Igoji. Simple random sampling method was used in this study. Research instruments used were interview schedules, focus group discussions and observation. Data was collected from oral, secondary and archival sources. Data from oral sources was corroborated with data from archival and secondary sources to ensure validity and reliability of the study. Qualitative data was analyzed using descriptive narratives while quantitative data got was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as percentages and tables. Data got through observation was presented in pictorial form. This study established that changes in male circumcision can be traced from the time of colonialism. The major findings of this research were that traditional practice involved use of same knife on the initiates; the people were superstitious and that interaction between the indigenous people, colonialists and missionaries as early made the Ameru to embrace modern male circumcision. Changes were noted in the education offered, tools used, seclusion, commercialization of circumcision and method of circumcision. Changes were facilitated by urbanization, formal schooling, health facilities and colonization all of which were intended to Christianize the operations. The factors leading to change included Christianity, western formal education, individualism, high cost of living, health concerns, advocacy and urbanization. It was established that effects of changes included but not limited to social disorder, rivalry among groups, HIV protection and bad neighborliness. The study established drastic changes in male initiation rite of circumcision such as involvement of women and documentation of the process. The effects of changes are being dealt with by the government, the church and the civil society through advocacy and blending of traditional and modern aspects of male rite of circumcision. This study will bridge the knowledge gap on male initiation among the Ameru of Imenti South Sub County and provide empirical data that can be of use to other scholars carrying out related studies.
Colonial policies against female circumcision among the Nyakoe people from Kenya between 1907 and 1963
(Journal of history and cultural studies, 2022-08-05) Ongeri, Dennis O.; Kithinji, Caroline M.; Nkonge, Dickson K.
The purpose of this study was to establish the colonial policies against female circumcision among the Nyakoe people, Kisii County, Kenya, between 1907-1963. This study used Cultural Attraction Theory (CAT) as a tool for analysis. Methodologically, qualitative research was applied; hence, the study used the descriptive study design. This study was carried out in the village of Nyakoe, south of Kisii County, because of the continued female circumcision among the Nyakoe people. Fifty Respondents were purposively sampled using snowball techniques. The data was collected from primary, archive, and secondary sources that were corroborated to ensure the reliability and objectivity of the study. This survey collected data through oral interviews and focus group discussions. Data were analysed and presented by qualitative data analysis. The main research findings were that Christian missionaries and the African chiefs in the local native councils, the building of schools, forced labour of Gusii men, the narrative of European superiority, taxation, prosecution of the participants, trade and evangelisation used to protest against female circumcision. Female circumcision continued in the study area despite the colonial government's efforts to stop it.
Colonialism and its implication on the African family stability in Embu north sub-county of Kenya from 1895 to 1965
(Edition Consortium Publishing, 2022-07-31) Kaaria, Lizza N.; Kithinji, Caroline M.; Nkonge, Dickson K.
This study sought to explore the colonialism and its’ implication on the African family stability in Embu North Sub-County of Kenya from 1895 to 1965. The study employed a descriptive research design. Data were obtained from oral, archival and secondary sources. The researcher interviewed 50 respondents who were purposively sampled using a snowballing technique. The study corroborated data from oral, archival and secondary sources to ensure the validity and reliability of the study. Cultural Evolution theory was used to examine colonialism and its implications on the African family stability in the area of study. The study findings indicated that the family values among the Aembu were authentic and ensured a well-organised rhythm of life before the advent of European imperialism in 1895. However, there was a disruption in the traditional religion of the Aembu with the establishment of the Kigari mission station in 1910, the modes of dressing, eating, language and education were changed to suit a western value system. This study has contributed to the colonial historiography of the Aembu of Embu North Sub-County, Kenya.
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE METHODS USED BY ANGLICAN CHURCH OF KENYA IN ALLEVIATING POVERTY IN CHOGORIA ARCHDEACONRY, MERU DIOCESE
(Chuka University, 2021) Kaimuru, F.; Kagema, Dickson N.; Kithinji, Caroline M.
Poverty continues to be the main challenge of human existence in many parts of the world. In Africa it is the main source of agony among individuals and communities. In Kenya it continues to influence people’s lives negatively as the majority lacks the basic essentials including food, clothing, shelter, education and healthcare. In Chogoria Archdeaconry, poverty has continued to affect people, who continue to struggle for survival. In response to this, the Anglican Church of Kenya (ACK), has endeavored to fight the scourge as part of her mission to the society. This study examined the effectiveness of the methods used by ACK to alleviate poverty. The ACK has been involved in the fight against poverty in Chogoria Archdeaconry using various methods since it was incepted in 1974. The study investigated reasons for the persistence of poverty; determined the effectiveness of methods used; and established ways of making the methods more effective. The study will benefit researchers in future by adding to the existing knowledge in the field of religion and development. It will help the church leaders get the real picture of the community they serve; the church to realize the reasons why poverty persist in spite of efforts to alleviate it; and establish ways of making the methods more effective. The study was guided by the broad theory of psycho-social approach that emphasize that development should be seen as an improvement of quality of life of an individual, community and country. The study was conducted in Chogoria Archdeaconry, Maara Sub-County in Tharaka Nithi County that has a population of 107,125 people and 8 parishes with a population of 712 followers, 8 priests, 30 Archdeaconry leaders and 674 Christians. Data was collected from a sample size of 384 respondents. The study used descriptive research design and the sampling method used was simple random sampling for community members and purposive sampling technique for church members and archdeaconry leaders. The instruments for data collection were questionnaires, interviews and observation. Data was analyzed and findings presented using descriptive statistics. The study found that there are various reasons for persistent of poverty in Chogoria Archdeaconry which includes: wealth acquisition rather than quality of life, leadership prospecting and corruption, gap between the rich and the poor, unequal distribution of resources, agricultural condition, lack of education, unemployment, dependency, laziness and drunkenness. The methods used to alleviate poverty included: education, establishment of ADS, capacity building, CCMP and microfinance. It further revealed that some of the methods used by ACK to alleviate poverty are not effective and that all methods need to be improved so as to alleviate poverty in Chogoria Archdeaconry.