2nd International Research Conference Proceedings Chuka University, 2015

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Assessment of biomass production from tithonia diversifolia and sapium ellipticum.
(Chuka University, 2016) Maragara, E.N.; Musalia, L.; Njoka, E.N.
The amount and quality of fodder crops, such as Napier grass drastically declines during dry season. This reduces feed availability and impacts severe effects on livestock performance, in terms of growth, milk and meat production. Fodder trees and shrubs have been proportionately overlooked in terms of the research effort devoted to agricultural cropland, pasture grasses and fruit trees crops. Although they are the most visible plant forms in arid lands, shrubs have been neglected in most scientific research and land management policies. There is need, therefore, to explore the potential of indigenous fodder species as an alternative to introduction of exotic ones. Data on many indigenous fodder trees and shrubs biomass production is lacking. The objective of this study was, therefore, to assess the potential of biomass production from Tithonia and Sapium forages for use as possible substitutes to napier grass so as to widen the choice of forages and reduce risk of single species, such as napier grass and or Leucaena leucocephala, dependence. Biomass assessment for Tithonia and Sapium at KARI Embu involved selection of site, plot identification, plot demarcation, herbage harvesting, yield and dry matter determination. The herbage stems under shade were taller and slender than those under sun. The yield of Napier grass compared to both Tithonia and Sapium forages was much less because Tithonia was more aggressive in growth and Sapium had a deeper rooting system than Napier grass
Pesticide use knowledge, attitude and perception influence residue occurrence in french bean (phaseolus vulgaris) pods in Murang’a County, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2016) Njue, A.M.; Mucheru, M.; Maina, M
Some Kenyan horticultural products are rejected in export markets due to excess Maximum Residue Levels. Farmers need assistance on pesticide use to meet stringent quality crop, freedom from pests and pesticide residues standards. This study assessed farmers’ knowledge, attitude and practice that may influence pesticide residue occurrence on their crop and health. A cross-sectional survey was done among French bean farmers in Murang’a County. Stratified random sampling was done based on use of synthetics or biopesticides for organic production. Questionnaires were administered to 100 French bean farmers via face-to-face interview in Kikuyu language by trained enumerators. Pesticide use knowledge, attitudes, and practices were scored and dichotomized and Chi-square-tested at P=0.05. The pesticide use practices were significantly different across the demographics such as education level and years of practice. The knowledge on pesticide use was very high but there was ignorance of protective clothing use and proper pesticide container disposal, which strongly correlated with the health ailments such as headaches at R=0.6. The biopesticides from common plant extracts (Trichoderma, Azandchatra, Mexican marigold) were reported to have better protection against frost but they were slightly lower in crop pest protection than insecticides such as Aster, Cyrux and Extrim. The overall attitude towards biopesticide use was 76%, but most farmers were hindered by lack of knowledge on preparation. Most farmers require the knowledge on mixing, adoption of safer, less expensive and locally available biopesticides, which will catalyze the move towards organic production for good human and environmental health.
Survey on distribution and damage on tomatoes by red spider mite in Subukia and Rongai sub County.
(Chuka University, 2016) Musah S. M.; Kamau A. W; Munene M
A survey was carried out in March 2013 in Subukia and Rongai Sub County to obtain information on key pest of tomato and strategies adopted by farmers for their management. A total of 60 farmers (30 open field and 30 greenhouse) interviewed were randomly selected from the two sub county. The selection of farmer was done in conjunction with the Ministry of Agriculture staff in the respective sub county. Both primary and secondary data were collected in this study. Primary data was obtained from direct interview of the farmers whereas secondary data was obtained from the various Ward Agricultural Extension offices. A structured questionnaire was administered to each respondent through one farm visit using the most appropriate language or interpreter where necessary. In addition field observations were carried out to verify information provided where the tomato crop was available. The survey showed that most farmers (96.7%) perceived or recorded Red spider mite as the most important pest of tomatoes. The farmers indicated that they experience a crop loss of more than 50% in both short rain and dry seasons if proper control measures were not applied
Improvement of sustainability and profitability of high tunnel tomato production through dissemination of technologies, knowledge and information
(Chuka University, 2016) Mbaka, J; Gitonga, J.; Gathambiri, C.; Mwangi, B.G.; Githuka, P
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an important income generating crop in high potential rural areas as well as in the peri-urban areas where availability of farming land is a constraint. Production is mainly by smallholder farmers and has been conventionally under open field conditions until recently when production under modified high tunnels, popularly known as ‘greenhouses’, was pioneered by a few farmers and has gained massive adoption in the last decade. The rapid growth in adoption and uptake of the high tunnel innovation has spawned numerous local enterprises that are fabricating and vending tailor-made tunnels for horticultural purposes. However, implementation of the high tunnels is under serious threat by many biotic and abiotic factors. Early adopters abandon the technology while others get into it. A study was conducted in Embu and Kirinyaga Counties to identify the knowledge and technology gaps that threaten sustainability of the innovation. The most serious threats to sustainability of the high tunnel innovation for tomato production were: bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, insect pests such as whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci), poor construction and limited knowledge on management. The Farmer Field Schools were used to train farmers on tomato production in the high tunnels. Parameters considered included: establishment of healthy seedlings in germination trays with coco-peat, solarisation and grafting against soilborne pests, pest identification, scouting and management, post-harvest handling and value addition. Production increased by 80% leading to adoption of the technology. Dissemination of the high tunnel production should always be accompanied with training on management.
Effect of age of improved forage sorghum on prussic acid toxicity and nutritive value to young ruminants in semi-arid Kenya
(Chuka University, 2016) Irungu, R.; Ashiono, G.B.; Muasya, T.K.; Kariuki, J.N
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench) is suitable fodder to alleviate feed shortage in semi-arid tropics as it is drought tolerant. Two varieties of forage sorghum were studied to ascertain the effect of age on prussic acid concentration and nutritive value and to establish the threshold at which it would be safe to feed the sorghum to young ruminants. Varieties E1291 and E6518, planted in randomized complete block layout with three replicates, were sampled for prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid, HCN) and nutrient composition at 5 and 10 weeks (first and second weeding and thinning) and thereafter, every 2 weeks up to 22 weeks. The data was subjected to analysis of variance and regression which showed that HCN negatively correlated to sorghum age. Variety E1291 contained less prussic acid compared to E6518. During the study, E6518 and E1291 contained 186.7 and 90.8; 167.5 and 139.8 mg/kg DM, HCN at 5 and 10 weeks, respectively, which decreased significantly to 81.6 and 70.8 mg/kg DM at 14 weeks. Prussic acid concentration in E1291 during the whole study period did not surpass the threshold of 200 mg/kg DM but the concentration in E6518 approached this threshold below 10 weeks’ growth. After 10 weeks’ growth E6518 also did not surpass the toxic threshold. Therefore, E1291 can be fed to young ruminants at any age but E6518 can only be fed after 10 weeks without toxic effects on young ruminants. Dry matter (DM), organic matter and fibre increased whereas crude protein decreased with sorghum age. The sorghum sampled young produced highly nutritious feed for young ruminants. However, the low DM is disadvantageous as ruminants offered these sorghum varieties ingest less DM compared to sorghum containing higher DM. Hence sorghum should be harvested later than 22 weeks of growth for higher DM intake by young ruminants.
Endogenous sugars associated with development of somatic embryos of coffee (coffea arabica l.)
(Chuka University, 2016) Mayoli, R.N.,; Lubabali, A.H.; Isutsa D.K.,; Nyende, A.B.,; Mweu, C.M.; Njoroge, E.K
Plant tissue culture allows rapid in vitro regeneration of plants. Processes and factors related to development of coffee somatic embryos are not well established, resulting in poor induction or few embryos and hence low regeneration of coffee seedlings. This research identified and quantified endogenous sugars (glucose, fructose and sucrose) associated with somatic embryogenesis in Coffea arabica cultivar Ruiru 11. Third leaf pair of greenhouse-grown mother plants was used as explants in half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS 1962) media. Both green and brown leaf discs cultures with and without embryos were used to characterise the sugars. Embryos with fresh culture media and leaf explants were used as controls. A complete random design replicated thrice and repeated in two seasons in 2014 was used. Sucrose, fructose and glucose were extracted and analyzed using a Knuer HPLC and identified by comparing retention time with that of sucrose standard. Glucose content was significantly (P<0.05) high in brown leaf discs without embryos in both seasons (40.15 mg/g and 37.75 mg/g FW, respectively). Fructose content was significantly (P<0.05) high in brown leaf discs without embryos in both seasons (48.4mg/g and 42.4 mg/g FW). Sucrose content was significantly (P<0.05) high in fresh leaves in both seasons (18.87 mg/g and 19.57 mg/g, respectively) whereas in season 2, the sucrose content was significantly (P<0.05) high in embryos on green leaf discs (58.43 mg/g). Harmful effects of high accumulation of fructose and glucose which are reducing in nature resulted in no embryo development in the brown leaf discs. High sucrose which resulted in brown and green leaf discs with embryos implied that embryo maturation is associated with storage material accumulation and is accompanied with an increase in sucrose to hexose ratio.
Enhancing agribusiness through improved markets, market linkages and partnerships
(Chuka University, 2016) Dr. Mutunga, J.K.
The African governments have downplayed the role of agriculture in kick-starting transformation through agricultural based revolution, despite the public declaration and evidence that yields can be dramatically increased if farmers had access to improved technologies and product markets. Agricultural produce markets play a significant role of driving agribusiness and therefore should be developed and managed appropriately. Market development should focus at addressing the glaring obtaining structural, financial and infrastructural challenges through: Exploiting market development opportunities in export–import balance, product transformation and diversification and accelerating input markets through dynamic research; Enhancing market linkages through regional integration and, exploiting opportunities that come with information and communication technology, supply chain management and adoption of pro-poor market access models and; Promoting public-private partnerships and venture mergers to increase operational volumes for better market access. Revolution through agribusiness would generate many progressive jobs in agriculture and move large populations out of poverty. Securing family food supplies through higher yields would enable smallholder farmers to free up land and labour for more profitable agribusiness uses and thus increase farm level revenues. The same would increase local level demand for higher value foods and non-farm goods and services, create additional productive employment in rural areas and improve livelihoods of people depending on agriculture. Agriculture would play its rightful role in financing African economic development, poverty alleviation and enhancing food security for majority of such dependent economies.
Molecular and morphological characterization of preferred Kenyan multi-purpose pumpkin (cucurbita moschata duch.) cultivars
(Chuka University, 2016) Kirimi, J.K.; Isutsa, D.K.; Nyende, A.B.; Nzuki, I.W.
Pumpkin (C. moschata) is the most grown species, with a wide range of variability. Determining the degree of variability is the preliminary step in studying their genetic diversity. The objective of the present study was to characterize genotypically, compare the results with phenotypic data to establish correlations between their distances by classifying the accessions based on their dissimilarity. DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction and Agarose Gel Electrophoresis (AGE) were done on 139 accessions using SSR and ISSR primers. Fluorescent capillary electrophoresis (CE) genotyping with labeled SSR was done on DNA samples of 96 selected accessions. Morphological characterization was done on-farm in a complete randomized design, replicated three times. Morphological data was subjected to analysis of variance using SAS. Means were separated at P=0.05. Chi square test (P=0.05) separated qualitative data. Unweighted Pair Group Method of arithmetic mean and Euclidean Genetic Distance constructed dendrograms using molecular and morphological data with XLstat. DNA quantity ranged from 70.02-2992 ng/µl and quality from 0.56-2.1 of 260/280 absorbance ratio. Molecular characterization with AGE revealed variations among accessions. Amplifications ranged 100-500 and 200-2000 bp, PIC 0.5 and 0.597, alleles number 526 and 509, polymorphism 21.3% and 74.01% in SSR and ISSR, respectively. CE revealed 23 alleles with a range of 181-326 bp. CE genotyping amplified 934 distinctive SSR DNA fragments. Mean PIC was 0.49, observed heterozygosity 0.5048, genotype number 6.8, gene diversity 0.5491 across the markers. Fluorescent SSRs had 98.54% mean polymorphism. CE revealed two unique alleles. Significant variations (P<0.05) resulted among 146 accessions morphologically with fruit ribbing being not significant. PCA provided 9 and 13 PCs for quantitative and qualitative data, respectively. Quantitative characters explained 82.37%, qualitative 71.54%, of total variation. Both morphological and molecular data revealed genetic diversity among accessions. The variation in Kenyan pumpkins is increasing hence there is need to conserve them to prevent genetic erosion through crossbreeding with exotic ones.
Dynamic quantitative trait loci and copy number variation: the missing heritability of complex agronomic traits
(Chuka University, 2016) Muraya, M.M
Genetic studies have identified thousands of loci controlling various agronomic traits, revealing important biological pathways and providing valuable insights into genetic basis of trait variation. However, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have explained relatively small heritability of most complex traits, leading to the question of ‘missing’ heritability of complex traits. This study examined the ‘missing’ heritability and offered clues on the underlying genetic architecture of complex traits, such as biomass accumulation in maize. Twelve main effect and 6-pair of epistasis quantitative trait loci (QTL), displaying different patterns of expression at different developmental time points in 261 maize genotypes were used. Copy number variation (CNV) and presence absence variation (PAV) was used to study the genetic architecture in 34 maize genotypes. The identified QTL and CNV were mapped on maize B73 reference genome. A total of 182 genes were found harboured in the detected QTL regions. A complex CNV architecture, such as smaller CNV nested within larger CNV or overlapping CNV regions was detected throughout the maize genome, which may explain the extraordinary traits variation observed in maize. The complex CNV genetic architecture may partly explain the missing heritability. The differential gene expression and their interactions at different developmental time points may also explain the missing heritability. Consequently, the genetic model from final trait values cannot reflect the real gene action during the entire growth and development of a plant. It is necessary to understand the CNV and the dynamics of gene expression for complex traits at different developmental stages as a basis for quantitative trait manipulation.
Effects of transgenic and conventional gypsophila on beneficial arthropod diversity
(Chuka University, 2016) Ngugi, C.N; Waturu, C.N.; Wepukhulu; S.B., Nguru; J.K., Kamau; L.G., Kimani; A.W.; Wangoh, R.W
Gypsophila paniculata (L) (Baby’s Breath) is a common commercial variety, with predominantly white or light pink flowers. Through genetic insertion of pap 1 gene, cultivars with altered colour, dark purple and red to light pink have been developed, prompting the need to determine their effect on beneficial arthropod diversity. Five transgenic Gypsophila cultivars (TG272, TG292, TG59, TG505, TG143) and conventional cultivar CGMS (control) were established. Each cultivar was a treatment with five replicates. Ten plants were randomly selected for each cultivar and lady bird beetles, predatory mites, syrphids, ants, bees, mummified aphids and spiders recorded at two weeks interval, one month after planting. Transgenic Gypsophila TG59 had 2.42±0.6 and 1.79±0.2 bees in first and second seasons, respectively, and the difference was significant (P=0.0001). CGMS had the highest mean ladybird beetles (0.32 ± 0.05) in second season and the difference was significant (P=0.0001). Transgenic cultivar TG292 recorded the highest mean ants (0.75±0.11; 0.73±0.11) and CGMS had the least mean ants (0.06±0.03; 0.07±0.02) and the difference was significant (P=0.0001). TG59 had the highest mean mummified aphids (0.18±0.07) and the difference (P=0.0021) was only significant in the second season. Transgenic Gypsophila had no negative effect on beneficial arthropods since arthropods were found on it. More bees, ants, mummified aphids and spiders were found on transgenic Gypsophila, while conventional Gypsophila had more ladybird beetles. Bees are major beneficial arthropods of Gypsophila. Research on effect of transgenic cultivars on other beneficial arthropods and even in other crops is necessary.
2nd International Research Conference Theme: "Mainstreaming Research Commercialization for Sustainable Development" Proceedings
(Chuka University, 2016) Isutsa, D. K. and Githae, E. W. (Eds.)
Distribution and Diversity of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria in Selected Agro-Industrial Pollution in Njoro River, Nakuru, Kenya
(Chuka University, 2016) Itotia, T.K.; Muia, A.W.; Kiruki, S.; Getenga, Z.M.
Many in-stream activities occur in River Njoro. Consequently, many pharmaceuticals used in farms and hospitals and antibiotic-resistant microbes end up in the River through runoff and sewage. Presence of antibiotic resistance exposes humans and animals to contamination during in-stream activities. This study determined bacteria resistant to both medical and veterinary antibiotics in the catchment. Residual antibiotics and physical chemical conditions and indicators of feacal pollution were investigated. The bacteria resistant to five antibiotics studied varied significantly (P<0.05). Turkana site had highest resistors to ampicillin, tetracycline and streptomycin, while Njoro Canning Factory had highest resistors to gentamycin and Chloramphenical. Indicators of faecal pollution were found in all sites including Sigotik with 413.33±15.28 E.coli per 100 ml of water. Physical chemical measurements showed site differences. The Njoro Canning Factory BOD was 6.99±0.20 mg L-1, whereas Sigotik BOD was 1.28±0.13 mg L-1. Presumptive positive Salmonella, V. cholera and V. parahaemolyticus species were found in Turkana and Ngata sites. There is cause for alarm due to the high numbers of antibiotic resistant bacteria in River Njoro. Proper treatment of the River water before use is recommended, or alternative safe water sources for these communities should be found.
A Note on Quasi-Similarity of Operators in Hilbert Spaces
(Chuka University, 2016) Sitati, I.N.; Musundi, S.W.
This paper reports on the notion of Quasi-similarity of bounded linear operators in Hilbert Spaces, defines a quasi-affinity from one Hilbert Space H to K and discusses results on quasi-affinities. It has been shown that on a finite dimensional Hilbert Space, quasi-similarity is an equivalence relation; it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Using the definition of commutants of two operators, an alternative result is given to show that quasi-similarity is an equivalence relation on an infinite dimensional Hilbert Space. The relationship between quasi-similarity and almost similarity equivalence relations in Hilbert Spaces using hermitian and normal operators is established.
Impact of Information Technology on Library Services: A Case Study of Chuka University Library
(Chuka University, 2016) Tuei, N.C.; Kagure, P.; Kinoti, M.
Information technology has provided libraries with opportunities to share innovative practices and concepts by providing platforms where individuals can come together and collaborate. The study examined the impact of information technology on library services in Chuka University Library. The paper traces briefly the history of Chuka University Library. The study adopted the descriptive survey method. The questionnaire was used as instrument for collecting data. Results showed that use of information technology on library services assists develop the library by ensuring quick delivery, access and easy retrieval of information by users. Inadequate librarians' information technology skills, provision of information technology training programmes and infrastructure hinder the effective use of information technology in Chuka University library. Therefore, there should be adequate training and retraining of librarians to equip them with the required skills in modern technologies and injection of funds for infrastructural development for effective library services. This will result in the effective delivery of information services.
SocCHAT: An Open Localized Social Network for Digital Marketing, Virtual Networking and Mentorship in Universities
(Chuka University, 2016) Tuei, K.K.
Social Networks have become the best tools for digital marketing. Careers have been developed, enabling public and private institutions to tap into the growing number of social media users. The government has also created institutional accounts in major social platforms to engage with citizens for effective service delivery and real time feedback. This study showed that universities can deploy an open social network for digital marketing, virtual networking and mentorship and have complete control over it, develop its on terms of service, statement of rights and responsibilities, as well as privacy policy. This would help disseminate information better than notice-boards, and obtain feedback in real time to save paper. The open social network discussed is the Humhub, so far deployed and tested. It offers rich features that would ensure continuous traffic to the university website which is usually low since clients rarely visit their own websites. SocChat offers mentorship features for instilling self-confidence, motivation and passion that cannot be taught in lecture rooms. It inherits security features offered by Yii Framework from which it has been developed using the PHP scripting language.
Soad: An Application for Peer to Peer Web Communication Between Users in a Network
(Chuka University, 2016) Muturi, I.M.
Web technology has emerged as effective tool for communication, socialization, e-commerce, e-government, research, mass awareness and information sharing. With advancement in technology such as Wi-Fi many people access this technology. Today, many places have Wi-Fi network, but people haven’t fully exploited it due to cost and limited connectivity. It is possible to scan a Wi-Fi network and discover no connection on it. There is thus a need for developing a system that allows free and secure communication between users without interfering with current networking protocols and allowing for interoperability, interactivity and usability between users. The paper presents the SoAd application as a proof of concept in implementing such a system. SoAd was developed using java which is platform independent and supported by many operating systems including mobiles such as AndroidTM. Java.net class is a rich networking tool for socket and URL communication in local and internet networks. SoAd emulates a server as a client and allows communication between users in the network using java sockets. The idea is to allow users communicate without a centralized server when in a network and delivery of information as web contents. This application suits e-commerce and socialization among many others.
Revolutionalising Geospatial Technology in Africa: Awareness Creation on the Available Services and Use of GEONETcast Toolbox
(Chuka University, 2016) Mbaabu, P.R.
Geospatial technology affects almost every aspect of life. The world is so interconnected and everything is based on spatial relationships. A Geospatial technology is a term used to describe the range of modern tools contributing to the geographic mapping and analysis of the earth and human societies. These technologies have been evolving since the first maps were drawn in prehistoric times. There has been intense use of these technologies for a variety of applications in the developed countries and in the US, Canada, Europe and Asia. Unfortunately, exploration of the same in Africa remains a challenge. Consequently, the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) developed the GEONETCast toolbox facility with a focus on Africa’s geospatial needs. It calls for coordination of the Earth Observation systems of various countries, promotes the concept of establishing a Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) that will yield a broad range of societal benefits such as: understanding factors affecting human well-being; understanding, assessing, predicting, mitigating, and adapting to climate variability and change; improving water resource management; improving weather information, forecasting and warning; reducing loss of life and property due to disasters; supporting sustainable agriculture; combating desertification; improving management of energy resources; and protection of terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems. This paper will raise awareness of this facility among African geospatial users, researchers, students, business community and educators, among others.
Cybersecurity Laws and Digital Transformation: A Survey of the State-of-the-Art
(Chuka University, 2016) Mohamed, H. Abdi.
The objective of this paper is to review the existing literature on Cybersecurity Laws and highlight the major challenges in development and application of the necessary instruments of legislation and how this is impacting on digital transformation and development. The global nature of cybercrime has necessitated an urgent drive towards the enactment and harmonization of Cybersecurity laws if digital transformation and development is to be realized. While that is a noble idea, the sluggish pace at which the legislations are being enacted may render them outdated or inapplicable to the current threats that are abound in the security landscape. This has far reaching implications and consequences to digital transformation and development. The paper is based on a literature review of existing published research on cybersecurity, cybercrime, cybersecurity laws and digital transformation. A survey of existing literature was conducted whose findings are presented. The review has shown that cybercrime is a global problem without geographical borders while enacted legislations are not keeping pace with the changing technology landscape and are not harmonized. Cybercrime statistics are inaccurate as many cases go undetected or unreported. It is costly to develop and maintain security and other preventive measures. While efforts have been made towards digitization and development, African continent lacks the human resource capacity and the technology infrastructure necessary to detect, prosecute and convict the perpetrators of cybercrimes. The study findings are intended to assist business managers to effectively understand Cybersecurity and cybercrime in order to review the related Laws, policies and procedures in tandem with national and international standards and conventions. Digital transformation is first and foremost a business transformation; it is not just about technology. Cybersecurity legislation is an essential ingredient to digital transformation. Africa and indeed the world has to heavily invest in Cybersecurity awareness and skills development training, conduct focused research in cyber threat, and develop common cybersecurity frameworks.
Attack Susceptibility of Known Attacks on IEEE 802.11 Public WLAN
(Chuka University, 2016) Mwathi, D.G.; Opiyo, E.; Odongo, O.
Besides WLAN networks popularity in many places, they have security concerns. Whereas efforts have been made to address the security concerns, design flaws in the security mechanisms of IEEE 802.11 standard such as support for vulnerable authentication methods, and poor configurations give rise to a number of potential attacks. Consequently, readily available WLAN attack software tools make exploitation of these weaknesses relatively easy. This paper describes various WLAN attacks together with the vulnerabilities exploited and analyzes the attack susceptibility based on availability of attack tools and ease of their usage in the context of developing countries. The researcher analyzed attack susceptibility of 30 attack tools. Findings revealed that there are many tools that can be used to exploit WLAN vulnerabilities to launch attacks. The attack susceptibility of denial of service, man in the middle and cipher suite attacks were high. Many of the attack tools were open source, multi-platform and downloadable from the vendor website which made their usage level high. The high attack susceptibility suggested that the risk of attack is quite high in developing countries where institutions allocate low budgets on computer and network security design and implementation. Although all risks in using a WLAN network cannot be mitigated, keeping up-to date and implementing all reasonable measures should make WLAN reasonably safe from attack. Institutions need to prioritise and allocate reasonable resources to protecting WLANs against attacks.
Dynamics of Spatial Interaction and Socio-Economic Transformations around Chuka University Main Campus Based on Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques
(Chuka University, 2016) Kibetu, D.K.; Mwangi, J.M.; Njue, N.P.
Universities are physical entities exemplifying complex human-land interaction and diverse processes. Their expansion into towns and rural areas drives urbanization, social transformations and economic development. However, with widespread human activities, surrounding ecological conditions change. The present study analyzed the implications of the changing landscape and land use/land cover around Chuka University from 2003 to 2013. Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) change was identified as a key factor driving transformations. The study used GIS and remote sensing to evaluate the dynamics of interactions which have produced the present and historical scenarios. Remote sensing provided multi-temporal data on the patterns and processes of human activities, while GIS mapped and analyzed LULC changes. Results revealed increasing growth of built-up areas, decreasing land under vegetation cover, open spaces and increase in peri-urban agriculture. Ndagani is an upcoming peri-urban center, undergoing rapid growth and expansion through physical factors, demographic changes, land subdivision and sale, accessibility and proximity to motorized roads. The rate of socio-economic transformation taking place in this area could be assessed more effectively if Public Participatory GIS (PPGIS) and biophysical factors were integrated to enhance holistic understanding and decision making for monitoring current changes and forecasting future sustainable development, information exchange and spatial interactions.

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